792
Views
29
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Mini-Review

Steroid Hormones, Receptors, and Perceptual and Cognitive Sex Differences in the Visual System

&
Pages 110-127 | Received 05 Dec 2013, Accepted 01 Aug 2014, Published online: 25 Aug 2014

References

  • Fellman DJ, Van Essen DC. Distributed hierarchical processing in the primate cerebral cortex. Cereb Cortex 1991;1:1–47
  • Zeki S. A vision of the brain. London: Oxford Univ. Press; 1993
  • Taylor C, Clifford A, Franklin A. Color preferences are not universal. J Exp Psychol Gen 2013;142:1015--1027
  • Gibson JJ. The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; 1979
  • McGivern RF, Adams B, Handa RJ, Pineda JA. Men and women exhibit a differential bias for processing movement versus objects. PLoS One 2012;7:e32238
  • Canli T, Sivers H, Whitfield SL, Gotlib IH, Gabrieli JD. Amygdala response to happy faces as a function of extraversion. Science 2002;296:2191
  • Gallese V. Motor abstraction: a neuroscientific account of how action goals and intentions are mapped and understood. Psychol Res 2009;73:486–498
  • Kudwa AE, Lopez FJ, McGivern RF, Handa RJ. A selective androgen receptor modulator enhances male-directed social preference in sexually experienced, but not sexually naive, female rats. Endocrinology 2010;151:2659–2668
  • Roselli CE, Liu M, Hurn PD. Brain aromatization: classic roles and new perspectives. Semin Reprod Med 2009;27:207–217
  • Kuiper GG, Carlsson B, Grandien K, Enmark Em Haggblad J, Nilsson S, Gustafsson JA. Comparison of the ligand binding specificity and transcript tissue distribution of estrogen receptors alpha and beta. Endocrinology 1997;138:863–870
  • Kuiper GG, Gustafsson JA. The novel estrogen receptor beta subtype: potential role in the cell and promoter specific aactions of estrogens and anti-estrogens. FEBS Lett 1997;410:87–90
  • Suzuki T, Schirra F, Richards SM, Jensen RV, Sullivan DA. Estrogen and progesterone control of gene expression in the mouse meibomian gland. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008;49:1797–1808
  • Wierman ME. Sex steroid effects at target tissues: mechanisms of action. Adv Physiol Educ 2007;1:26–33
  • Wend K, Wend P, Krum SA. Tissue specific effects of loss of estrogen during menopause and aging. Front Endocrin 2012;3:19
  • Jensen EV. On the mechanism of estrogen action. Perspect Biol Med 1962;6:47–59
  • Jensen EV, Suzuki T, Kawashima T, Stumpf WE, Junglbut PW, DeSombre ER. A two-step mechanism for thee interaction of estradiol with rat uterus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1968;59:632–638
  • Evans RM. The steroid and thyroid hormone receptor superfamily. Science 1988;240:889–895
  • Nuclear Receptors Nomenclature Committee. A unified nomenclature system for the nuclear receptor superfamily. Cell 1999;97:161–163
  • Danielsen M, Hinck L, Ringold GM. Two amino acids with the knuckle of the first zinc finger specifiy DNA response element activation by the glucocorticoid receptor. Cell 1989;57:1131–1138
  • Malkoski SP, Handanos CM, Dorin RI. Localization of a negative glucocorticoid response element of the human corticotropin releasing hormone gene. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1997;127:189–199
  • Diamond MI, Miner JN, Yoshinaga SK, Yamamoto KR. Transcription factor interactions: selectors of positive or negative regulation from a single DNA element. Science 1990;249:1266–1272
  • Kumar R, McEwan IJ. Allostaeric modulators of steroid hormone receptors: structural dynamics and gene regulation. Endocr Rev 2012;33:271–299
  • Hall JM, McDonnell DP. Coregulators in nuclear estrogen receptor action: from concept to therapeutic targeting. Mol Interv 2005;5:343–357
  • Kelly MJ, Ronnekleiv OK. Membrane-initiated actions of estradiol that regulate reproduction, energy balance and body temperature. Front Neuroendocrinol 2012;33:376–387
  • Vasudevan N, Kow LM, Pfaff DW. Early membrane estrogenic effects required for full expression of slower genomic actions in a nerve cell line. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:12267–12271
  • Foradori CD, Weiser MJ, Handa RJ. Non-genomic actions of androgens. Front Neuroendocrinol 2008;29:169–181
  • Shakil T, Hoque AN, Husain M, Belsham DD. Differential regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion and gene expression by androgen: membrane versus nuclear receptor activation. Mol Endocrinol 2002;16:2592–2596
  • Schmidt BM, Gerdes D, Feuring M, Falkenstein E, Christ M, Wehling M. Rapid, nongenomic steroid actions: a new age? Front Neuroendocrinol 2000;21:57–94
  • Vasudevan N, Pfaff DW. Non-genomic actions of estrogens and their interaction with genomic actions in the brain. Front Neuroendocrinol 2008;29:238–257
  • Papadopoulou N, Papakonstanti EA, Kallergi G, Alevizopoulos K, Stournaras C. Membrane androgen receptor activation in prostate and breast tumor cells: molecular signaling and clinical impact. IUBMB Life 2009;61:56–61
  • Kelly MJ, Moss RL, Dudley CA. The effects of microelectrophoretically applied estrogen, cortisol and acetylcholine on medial preoptic-septal unit activity throughout the estrous cycle of the female rat. Exp Brain Res 1977;30:53–64
  • Swain A. Sex determination and differentiation. In: Neill JD, editor. Knobil and Neill’s physiology of reproduction. 3rd ed. San Diego: Elsevier; 2006. pp 245–260
  • Phoenix CH, Goy, RW, Gerall AA, Young W.C. Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology 1959;65:369–382
  • Sisk CL, Zehr JL. Pubertal hormones organize the adolescent brain and behavior. Front Neuroendocrinol 2005;26:163–174
  • McCarthy MM, Arnold AP. Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain. Nat Neurosci 2011;14:677–683
  • Naftolin F, Ryan KJ, Davies IJ, Flores F, Petro Z, Kuhn M, et al. The formation of estrogen by central neuroendocrine tissues. Recent Prog Horm Res 1975;31:295–318
  • Bakker J, De Mees C, Douhard Q, Balthazart J, Gabant P, Szpirer J, Szpirer C. A—fetoprotein protects the developing female mouse brain from masculinization and defeminization by estrogens. Nat Neurosci 2006;9:220–226
  • Brock O, Keller M, Douhard Q, Bakker J. Female mice deficient in alpha-fetoprotein show female-typical responses to conspecific-derived pheromones. PLoS One 2012;7:e39204
  • Arnold AP, Breedlove SM. Organizational and activational effects of sex steroids on brain and behavior: a reanalysis. Horm Behav 1985;19:469–498
  • Auger AP, Olesen KM. Brain sex differences and the organization of juvenile social play behavior. J Neuroendocrinol 2009;21:519–525
  • Resko JA, Buhl AE, Phoenix CH. Treatment of pregnant rhesus macaques with testosterone propionate: observations on its fate in the fetus. Biol Reprod 1987;37:1185–1191
  • Goy RW. Differentiation of male social traits in female rhesus macaques by prenatal treatment with androgens: variation in type of androgen, duration and timing of treatment. In: Mori T and Nagasawa H, editors. Toxicity of hormones in perinatal life. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1988. pp 127–144
  • Berenbaum SA, Duck SC, Bryk K. Behavioral effects of prenatal versus postnatal androgen excess in children with 21-hydroxylase-deficient congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 2000;85:83–87
  • Hines M. Prenatal testosterone and gender-related behaviour. Eur J Endocrinol 2006;155 Suppl 1:S115–S121
  • Iijima M, Arisaka O, Minamoto F, Aria Y. Sex differences in children’s free drawings: a study on girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Horm Behav 2001;40:99–104
  • Lamminmaki A, Hines M, Kuiri-Hanninen T, Kilpelainen L, Dunkel L, Sankilampi U. Testosterone measured in infancy predicts subsequent sex-typed behavior in boys and in girls. Horm Behav 2012;61:611–616
  • Kelso WM, Nicholls ME, Warne GL, Zacharin M. Cerebral lateralization and cognitive functioning in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Neuropsychology 2000;14:370–378
  • Hines M, Sandberg EC. Sexual differentiation of cognitive abilities in women exposed to diethylstilbestrol (DES) prenatally. Horm Behav 1996;30:354–363
  • Arnold AP, Chen X. What does the “four core genotypes” mouse model tell us about sex differences in the brain and other tissues? Front Neuroendocrinol 2009;30:1–9
  • Budefeld T, Grgurevic N, Tobet SA, Majdic G. Sex differences in brain developing in the presence or absence of gonads. Dev Neurobiol 2008;68:981–995
  • Steel E, Hutchison JB. Behavioral actions of estrogen in male hamsters: effect of the aromatase inhibitor, 1,4,6-androstatriene-3,17-dione (ATD). Horm Behav 1988;22:252–265
  • Bonsall RW, Clancy AN, Michael RP. Effects of the nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor, Fadrazole, on sexual behavior in male rats. Horm Behav 1992;26:240–254
  • Crowley WR, Kalra SP. Neonatal exposure to estradiol prevents the expression of ovarian hormone-inducing luteinizing hormone and prolactin surges in adulthood but not antecedent changes in neuropeptide Y or adrenergic transmitter activity: implications for sexual differentiation of gonadotropin secretion. Brain Res 1994;663:257–265
  • Hogervorst JG, Fortner RT, Mucci LA, Tworeoger SS, Eliassen AH, Ankinson SE, Wilson KM. Associations between dietary acrylamide intake and plasma sex hormone levels. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2013;22:2024–2036
  • Grodin JM, Siiteri PK, MacDonald PC. Source of estrogen production in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1973;36:207–214
  • Barnes RB, Levrant SG. Pharmacology of estrogens. In: Lobo RA, editor. Treatment of the postmenopasual woman: basic and clinical aspects. 3rd ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2007. pp 767–778
  • Penning TM. Hydroxytsteroid dehydrogenases and prereceptor regulation of steroid hormone action. Hum reprod update 2003;9:193–205
  • King RJB, Dyer G, Collins WP, Whitehead MI. Intracellular estradiol, estrone and estrogen receptor levels in endometria from postmenopausal women receiving estrogens and progestins. J Steroid Biochem 1980;13:377–382
  • Resnick SM, Henderson VW. Hormone therapy and risk of Alzheimer disease: a critical time: JAMA 2002;288:2170–2172
  • Zandi PP, Carlson MC, Plassman BL, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Mayer LS, Steffens DC, Breitner JC. Hormone replacement therapy and incidence of Alzheimer disease in older women: the Cache County Study 2002. JAMA 2002;288:2123–2129
  • Krug R, Molle M, Dodt C, Fehm HL, Born J. Acute influences on estrogen and testosterone on divergent and convergent thinking in postmenopausal women. Neurpsychopharmacology 2003;28:1538–1545
  • Linzmayer L, Semlitsch HV, Saletu B, Bock G, Saletu-Zyhlarz G, Zoghlami A, et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled psychometric studies on the effects of a combined estrogen-progestin regimen versus estrogen alone on performance, mood and personality of menopausal syndrome patients. Arzneimittelforschung 2001;51:238–245
  • Binder EF, Schechtman KB, Birge SJ, Williams DB, Kohrt WM. Effects of hormone replacement therapy on cognitive performance in elderly women. Maturitas 2001;38:137–146
  • Grady D, Yaffe K, Kristof M, Lin F, Richards C, Barrett-Connor E. Effect of postmenopausal hormone therapy on cognitive function: the heart and estrogen/progestin replacement study. Am J Med 2002;113:543–548
  • Shumaker S, Legault C, Kuller L, Rapp S, Thal L, Lane D, et al. Conjugated equine estrogens and incidence of probable dementia and mild cognitive impairment in postmenopausal women: women’s Health Initiative Memory Study. JAMA 2004;291:2947–2958
  • Morimoto LM, White E, Chen Z, Chlebowski RT, Hays J, Kuller L, et al. Obesity, body size and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer: the Women’s Health Initiative (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2002;13:741–751
  • Bagger YZ, Tanko LB, Alexandersen P, Qin G, Christiansen C. Early postmenopausal hormone therapy may prevent cognitive impairment later in life. Menopause 2005;12:12–17
  • Naftolin F, Talor HS, Kara R, Brinton E, Newman I, Clarkson TB, et al. The women’s health initiative could not have detected cardioprotective effects of starting hormone therapy during the menopause transition. Fertil Steril 2004;81:1498–1501
  • Wharton W, Gleason CE, Miller VM, Asthana S. Rationale and design of the Kronos Early Estrogen Prevention Study (KEEPS) and the KEEPS cognitive and Affective sub study (KEEPS Cog). Brain Res 2013;1514:12–17
  • Wolff EF, He Y, Black DM, Brinton EA, Budoff MJ, Cedars MI, et al. Self-reported menopausal symptoms, coronary artery calcification, and carotid intima-media thickness in recently menopausal women screened for the Kronos early estrogen prevention study (KEEPS). Fertil Steril 2013;99:1385–1391
  • Farr JN, Khosla S, Miyabara Y, Miller VM, Kearns AE. Effects of estrogen with micronized progesterone on cortical and trabecular bone mass and microstructure in recently postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013;98:E249–E257
  • Sullivan DA, Jensen RV, Suzuki T, Richards SM. Do sex steroids exert sex-specific and/or opposite effects on gene expression in lacrimal and meibomian glands? Mol Vis 2009;15:1553–1572
  • Guttridge NM. Changes in ocular and visual variables during the menstrual cycle. Ophthalmic Phsiol Opt 1994;14:38–48
  • Eisner A, Burke SN, Toomey MD. Visual sensitivity across the menstrual cycle. Vis Neurosci 2004;21:513–531
  • Schaumberg DA, Uchino M, Christen WG, Semba RD, Buring JE, Li JZ. Patient reported differences in dry eye disease between men and women: impact, management, and patient satisfaction. PLoS One 2013;8:e76121
  • Eisner A, Demirel S. Variability in short-wavelength automated perimetry among peri- or postmenopausal women: a dependence on phyto-oestrogen consumption? Acta Ophthalmologica 2011;89:E217–E224
  • Eisner A, Luoh SW. Breast cancer medications and vision: effects of treatments for early-stage disease. Curr Eye Res 2011;36:867–885
  • Akar Y, Yucel I, Akar ME, Taskin O, Ozer HO. Menstrual cycle-dependent changes in visual field analysis of healthy women. Ophthalmologica 2005;219:30–35
  • Asso D. The relationship between menstrual cycle changes in nervous system activity and psychological, behavioral and physical variables. Biol Psychol 1986;23:53–64
  • Ellis L, Hershberger S, Field E, Wersinger S, Pellis S, Geary D, et al. Sex differences: summarizing more than a century of research. New York: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis; 2008
  • Delpero WT, O'Neill H, Casson E, Hovis J. Aviation-relevant epidemiology of color vision deficiency. Aviat Space Environ Med 2005;76:127–133
  • Dubois PH. The sex difference in the color naming test. Am J Psychol 1939;52:380–382
  • Kimura D, Soucier DM, Matuk R. Women name both colors and form faster than men. Soc Neurosci Abs 1996;22:1861
  • Ligon EM. A genetic study of color naming and word reading. Acta Psychologica 1932;24:398–408
  • Nowaczyk RH. Sex-related differences in the color lexicon. Language Speech 1982;25:257–265
  • Swaringen S, Layman S, Wilson A. Sex difference in color naming. Percept Mot Skills 1978;47:440–442
  • Stroop JR. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol 1935;18:643–662
  • Thomas LL, Curtis AT, Bolton R. Sex differences in elicited color lexicon size. Perceptual Motor Skills 1978;47:77–78
  • Bimler DL, Kirkland J, Jameson KA. Quantifying variations in personal color spaces: are there sex differences in color vision? Color Res Applications 2004;29:128–134
  • Rodríguez-Carmona M, Sharpe LT, Harlow JA, Barbur JL. Sex-related differences in chromatic sensitivity. Vis Neurosci 2008;25:433–440
  • Pickford RW. Sex differences in color vision. Nature 1947;159:606–607
  • Hood SM, Mollon JD, Purves L, Jordan G. Color discrimination in carriers of color deficiency. Vision Res 2006;46:2894–2900
  • Pardo PJ, Perez AL, Suero MI. An example of sex-linked color vision differences. Color Res App 2007;32:433–439
  • Pickford RW. Sex differences in color vision. Nature 1944;159:606–607
  • Murray IJ, Parry NR, McKeefry DJ, Panorgias A. Sex-related differences in peripheral human color vision: a color matching study. J Vision 2012;12:1–10
  • Abramov I, Gordon J, Feldman O, Chavarga A. Sex & vision I: spatio-temporal resolution. Biol Sex Differ 2012;3:20
  • Carroll J, McMahon C, Neitz M, Neitz J. Flicker-photometric electroretinogram estimates of L: m cone photoreceptor ratio in men with photopigment spectra derived from genetics. J Optical Soc America A 2000;17:499–509
  • Winderickx J, Lindsey DT, Sanocki E, Teller DY, Motulsky AG, Deeb SS. Polymorphism in red photopigment underlies variations in color matching. Nature 1992;356:431–433
  • Neitz J, Neitz M, Jacobs GH. More than three different cone pigments among people with normal color vision. Vision Res 1993;33:117–122
  • Buchsbaum GA. A spatial processor model for object colour perception. J Franklin Inst 1980;310:1–26
  • van de Weijer J, Gevers T, Gijsenij A. Edge-based color constancy. IEEE Trans Image Process 2007;16:2207–2214
  • Agarwal V, Gribok AV, Abidi MA. Machine learning approach to color constancy. Neural Netw 2007;20:559–563
  • Hurlbert AC, Ling Y. Biological components of sex differences in color preference. Curr Biol 2007;17:R623–R625
  • Maccoby EE, Jacklin CN. The psychology of sex differences. Stanford: Stanford University Press; 1974
  • Halpern DF. Sex differences in cognitive abilities, Third Edition. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2000
  • Wood W, Eagly AH. A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychol Bull 2002;128:699–727
  • Matsuda KI, Mori H, Kawata M. Epigenetic mechanisms are involved in sexual differentiation of the brain. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2012;13:163–171
  • Handa, RJ, McGivern, RF. Androgen receptors in the brain: a behavioral perspective. In: Chang CC, editor. Androgens and androgen receptor: mechanisms, functions and clinical applications. NY: CCKluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers; 2002. pp. 325--344
  • Luine V, Dohanich G. Sex differences in cognitive functions in rodents. In: Becker JB, Berkley KJ, Geary N, Hampson E, Herman JP, Young E, editors. Sex differences in the brain. NY: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 227–251
  • Beatty WW. Hormonal organization of sex differences in play fighting and spatial behavior. Prog Br Res 1984;61:315–330
  • Saucier DM, Shultz SR, Keller AJ, Cook CM, Binsted G. Sex differences in object location memory and spatial navigation in Long-Evans rats. Anim Cogn 2008;11:129–137
  • McGivern RF, Clancy AN, Hill MA, Noble EP. Prenatal alcohol exposure alters adult expression of sexually dimorphic behavior in the rat. Science 2008;224:896–898
  • Rodríguez CA, Torres A, Mackintosh NJ, Chamizo VD. Sex differences in the strategies used by rats to solve a navigation task. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 2010;36:395–401
  • Maguire EA, Burgess N, O'Keefe J. Human spatial navigation: cognitive maps, sexual dimorphism, and neural substrates. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1999;9:171–177
  • Moffat SD, Hampson E, Hatzipantelis M. Navigation in a virtual maze: Sex differences and correlation with psychometric measures of spatial ability in humans. Evol Hum Behav 1998;19:73–87
  • Verde P, Piccardi L, Bianchini F, Trivelloni P, Guariglia C, Tomao E. Gender effects on mental rotation in pilots vs. nonpilots. Aviat Space Environ Med 2013;84:726–729
  • Andersen NE, Dahmani L, Konishi K, Bohbot VD. Eye tracking, strategies, and sex differences in virtual navigation. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2012;97:81–89
  • Vallortigara G. Learning of color and postion cues in domestic chicks: males are better at position, females at color. Behav Process 1996;36:289–296
  • Bachevalier J, Hagger C, Bercu BB. Gender differences in visual habit formation in 3-month-old rhesus monkeys. Dev Psychobiol 1989;22:585–599
  • Goldman PS, Crawford HT, Stokes LP, Galkin TW, Rosvold HE. Sex-dependent behavioral effects of cerebral cortical lesions in the developing rhesus monkey. Science 1974;186:540–542
  • Overman WH, Bachevalier J, Schuhmann E, Ryan P. Cognitive gender differences in very young children parallel biologically based cognitive gender differences in monkeys. Behav Neurosci 1996;110:673–684
  • Nyhus E, Barceló F. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the cognitive assessment of prefrontal executive functions: a critical update. Brain Cogn 2009;71:437–451
  • Singh-Curry V, Husain M. The functional role of the inferior parietal lobe in the dorsal and ventral stream dichotomy. Neuropsychologia 2009;47:1434–1448
  • Gallese V, Rochat M, Cossu G, Sinigaglia C. Motor cognition and its role in the phylogeny and ontogeny of action understanding. Dev Psychol 2009;45:103–113
  • Berenbaum SA, Martin CL, Hanish LD, Briggs PT, Fabes R. Sex differences in children’s play. In: Becker JB, Berkley KJ, Geary N, Hampson E, Herman JP, Young E, editors. Sex Differences in the Brain. NY: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 275–290
  • Eisenberg N, Murray E, Hite T. Children’s reasoning regarding sex-typed toy choices. Child Develop 1982;53:81–86
  • Alexander GM, Hines M. Sex differences in response to children's toys in nonhuman primates (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus). Evol Hum Behav 2002;23:467–479
  • Hassett JM, Siebert ER, Wallen K. Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children. Horm Behav 2008;54:359–364
  • Goy RW, McEwen BS. Sexual differentiation of the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1980
  • Berenbaum SA, Hines M. Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psych Sci 1992;3:203–206
  • Jeannerod M. The cognitive neuroscience of action. Oxford: Blackwell; 1997
  • Ungerleider LG, Mishkin M. Two cortical visual systems. In: Ingle DJ, Goodale MA, Mansfield RJW, editors. Analysis of visual behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1982. pp. 549–586
  • Goodale MA, Milner, AD. Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends Neurosci 1992;15:20–25
  • Rauschecker JP. Cortical processing of complex sounds. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1998;8:516–521
  • Romanski LM, Tian B, Fritz J, Mishkin M, Goldman-Rakic PS, Rauschecker JP. Dual streams of auditory afferents target multiple domains in the primate prefrontal cortex. Nat Neurosci 1999;2:1131–1136
  • Hickok G, Poeppel D. Dorsal and ventral streams: a framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language. Cognition 2004;92:67–99
  • Livingstone M, Hubel D. Segregation of form, color, movement, and depth: anatomy, physiology, and perception. Science 1988;240:740–749
  • Dacey DM. Parallel pathways for spectral coding in primate retina. Annu Rev Neurosci 2000;23:743–775
  • Martin PR, Lee BB. Distribution and specificity of S-cone (“blue cone”) signals in subcortical visual pathways. Vis Neurosci 2014;31:177–187
  • Field GD, Greschner M, Gauthier JL, Rangel C, Shlens J, Sher A, et al. High-sensitivity rod photoreceptor input to the blue-yellow color opponent pathway in macaque retina. Nat Neurosci 2009;12:1159–1164
  • Roy S, Jayakumar J, Martin PR, Dreher B, Saalmann YB, Hu D, Vidyasagar TR. Segregation of short-wavelength-sensitive (S) cone signals in the macaque dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Eur J Neurosci 2013;30:1517–1526
  • Percival KA, Martin PR, Grünert U. Organisation of koniocellular-projecting ganglion cells and diffuse bipolar cells in the primate fovea. Eur J Neurosci 2013;37:1072–1089
  • Casagrande VA, Yazar F, Jones KD, Ding Y. The morphology of the koniocellular axon pathway in the macaque monkey. Cereb Cortex 2007;17:2334–2345
  • Sincich LC, Park KF, Wohlgemuth MJ, Horton JC. Bypassing V1: a direct geniculate input to area MT. Nat Neurosci 2004;7:1123–1128
  • Grill-Spector K, Knouf N, Kanwisher N. The fusiform face area subserves face perception, not generic within-category identification. Nat Neurosci 2004;7:555–762
  • Grill-Spector K, Kourtzi Z, Kanwisher N. The lateral occipital complex and its role in object recognition. Vision Res 2001;41:1409–1422
  • Milner AD. Is visual processing in the dorsal stream accessible to consciousness? Proc Biol Sci 2012;279:2289–2298
  • Almeida J, Mahon BZ, Caramazza A. The role of the dorsal visual processing stream in tool identification. Psychol Sci 2010;21:772–778
  • Born RT, Bradley DC. Structure and function of visual area MT. Annu Rev Neurosci 2005;28:157–189
  • Ungerleider LG, Courtney SM, Haxby JV. A neural system for human visual working memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:883–890
  • Kravitz DJ, Saleem KS, Baker CI, Mishkin M. A new neural framework for visuospatial processing. Nat Rev Neurosci 2011;12:217–230
  • Rizzolatti G, Matelli M. Two different streams form the dorsal visual system: anatomy and functions. Exp Brain Res 2003;153:146–157
  • Kourtzi Z, Krekelberg B, van Wezel RJ. Linking form and motion in the primate brain. Trends Cogn Sci 2008;6:230–236
  • Merigan WH, Maunsell JH. How parallel are the primate visual pathways? Annu Rev Neurosci 1993;16:369–402
  • Shipp S, Zeki S. The functional organization of area V2, I: specialization across stripes and layers. Vis Neurosci 2002;19:187–210
  • Lee, JH, van Donkelaar P. Dorsal and ventral visual stream contributions to perception-action interactions during pointing. Exp Brain Res 2002;143:440–446
  • Seltzer B, Pandya DN. Parietal, temporal, and occipital projections to cortex of the superior temporal sulcus in the rhesus monkey: a retrograde tracer study. J Comp Neurol 1994;343:445–463
  • Webster MJ, Bachevalier J, Ungerleider LG. Connections of inferior temporal areas TEO and TE with parietal and frontal cortex in macaque monkeys. Cereb Cortex 1994;4:470–483
  • Webster MJ, Ungerleider LG, Bachevalier J. Connections of inferior temporal areas TE and TEO with medial temporal-lobe structures in infant and adult monkeys. J Neurosci 1991;11:1095–1116
  • Rosa MG, Palmer SM, Gamberini M, Burman KJ, Yu HH, Reser DH, et al. Connections of the dorsomedial visual area: pathways for early integration of dorsal and ventral streams in extrastriate cortex. J Neurosci 2009;29:4548–4563
  • Nuñez JL, Huppenbauer CB, McAbee MD, Juraska JM, DonCarlos LL. Androgen receptor expression in the developing male and female rat visual and prefrontal cortex. J Neurobiol 2003;56:293–302
  • Nuñez JL, Lauschke DM, Juraska JM. Cell death in the development of the posterior cortex in male and female rats. J Comp Neurol 2001;436:32–41
  • Nuñez JL, Jurgens HA, Juraska JM. Androgens reduce cell death in the developing rat visual cortex. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 2000;125:83–88
  • Seymoure P, Juraska JM. Vernier and grating acuity in adult hooded rats: the influence of sex. Behav Neurosci 1997;111:792–800
  • Brun CC, Leporé N, Luders E, Chou YY, Madsen SK, Toga AW, Thompson PM. Sex differences in brain structure in auditory and cingulate regions. Neuroreport 2009;20:930–935
  • Hyde JS, Linn MC. Gender differences in verbal ability: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bullet 1988;104:53–69
  • Herlitz A, Nilsson LG, Bäckman L. Gender differences in episodic memory. Mem Cognit 1997;25:801–811
  • Yonker JE, Eriksson E, Nilsson LG, Herlitz A. Sex differences in episodic memory: minimal influence of estradiol. Brain Cogn 2003;52:231–238
  • Herlitz A, Airaksinen E, Nordstrom E. Sex differences in episodic memory: the impact of verbal and visuospatial ability. Neuropsychology 2003;13:590–597
  • Berenbaum SA, Baxter L, Seidenberg M, Hermann B. Role of the hippocampus in sex differences in verbal memory: memory outcome following left anterior temporal lobectomy. Neuropsychology 1997;11:585–591
  • Kramer JH, Delis DC, Danile M. Sex differences in verbal learning. J Clin Psychol 1988;44:907–915
  • Kramer JH, Delis DC, Kaplan E, O'Donnell L, Prifitera A. Developmental sex differences in verbal learning. Neuropsychology 1997;11:577–584
  • Ragland JD, Coleman AR, Gur RC, Glahn DC, Gur RE. Sex differences in brain-behavior relationships between verbal episodic memory and resting regional cerebral blood flow. Neuropsychologia 2000;38:451–461
  • Anooshian LJ, Seibert PS. Conscious and unconscious retrieval in picture recognition: a framework for exploring gender differences. J Pers Soc Psychol 1996;70:637–645
  • McGivern RF, Huston JP, Byrd D, King T, Reilly J. Sex differences in recognition memory in children before and after puberty. Brain Cogn 1997;34:323–336
  • Silverman I, Eals M. Sex differences in spatial abilities: evolutionary theory and data. In: Barkow JH, Cosmides L, Tooby J, editors. The adapted mind. New York: Oxford University Press; 1992. pp. 533--549
  • Alexander GM, Packard MG, Peterson BS. Sex and spatial position effects on object location memory following intentional learning of object identities. Neuropsychologia 2002;40:1516–1522
  • Hoppe C, Fliessbach K, Stausberg S, Stojanovic J, Trautner P, Elger CE, Weber B. A key role for experimental task performance: effects of math talent, gender and performance on the neural correlates of mental rotation. Brain Cogn 2012;78:14–27
  • Kimura D. Sex and cognition. Cambridge: MIT Press; 1999
  • Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1988
  • Butler T, Imperato-McGinley J, Pan H, Voyer D, Cordero J, Zhu YS, et al. Sex differences in mental rotation: top-down versus bottom-up processing. Neuroimage 2006;32:445–456
  • Desrocher ME, Smith ML, Taylor MJ. Task and sex differences in performance of mental rotation: evidence from event-related potentials. Br Cogn 1995;28:14–38
  • Hugdahl K, Thomsen T, Ersland L. Sex differences in visuo-spatial processing: an fMRI study of mental rotation. Neuropsychologia 2006;44:1575–1583
  • Yu Q, Tang Y, Li J, Lu Q, Wang H, Sui D, et al. Sex differences of event-related potential effects during three-dimensional mental rotation. Neuroreport 2009;20:43–47
  • Jordan K, Wüstenberg T, Heinze HJ, Peters M, Jäncke L. Women and men exhibit different cortical activation patterns during mental rotation tasks. Neuropsychologia 2002;40:2397–2408
  • Weiss E, Siedentopf CM, Hofer A, Deisenhammer EA, Hoptman MJ, Kremser C, et al. Sex differences in brain activation pattern during a visuospatial cognitive task: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in healthy volunteers. Neurosci Lett 2003;344:169–172
  • Watson NV, Kimura D. Nontrivial differences in throwing and intercepting: relation to psychometrically defined spatial functions. Pers Individ Diff 1991;12:375–385
  • Hines M, Fane BA, Pasterski VL, Mathews GA, Conway GS, Brook C. Spatial abilities following prenatal androgen abnormality: targeting and mental rotations performance in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003;28:1010–1026
  • Goddings AL, Mills KL, Clasen LS, Giedd JN, Viner RM, Blakemore SJ. The influence of puberty on subcortical brain development. Neuroimage 2014;88:242–251
  • Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, Castellanos FX, Liu H, Zijdenbos A, et al. Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nat Neurosci 1999;2:861–863
  • Skordis N, Shammas C, Efstathiou E, Kaffe K, Neocleous V, Phylactou LA. Endocrine profile and phenotype-genotype correlation in unrelated patients with non-classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Clin Biochem 2011;44:959–963
  • Garagorri JM, Rodríguez G, Lario-Elboj AJ, Olivares JL, Lario-Muñoz A, Orden I. Reference levels for 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 11-desoxycortisol, cortisol, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and androstenedione in infants from birth to six months of age. Eur J Pediatr 2008;167:647–653
  • Maunsell JH. The brain’s visual world: representation of visual targets in cerebral cortex. Science 1995;270:764–769
  • Warren CN, Louden MT, Cabral J, de la Torre JC, McGivern RF. Sex differences in targeting can be eliminated by reducing conscious analysis of ball movement within an egocentric but not allocentric perspective. Soc Neurosci Abs 2013;765:27
  • Zaehle T, Jordan K, Wüstenberg T, Baudewig J, Dechent P, Mast FW. The neural basis of the egocentric and allocentric spatial frame of reference. Brain Res 2007;1137:92–103

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.