Glucocorticoid-resistant asthma: more than meets the eye

References

• Bel EH, Sousa A, Fleming L, Bush A, Chung KF, Versnel J, Wagener AH, et al. Diagnosis and definition of severe refractory asthma: an international consensus statement from the Innovative Medicine Initiative (IMI). Thorax 2011;66:910–917
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chanez P, Wenzel SE, Anderson GP, Anto JM, Bel EH, Boulet L-P, Brightling CE, et al. Severe asthma in adults: what are the important questions? J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;119:1337–1348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung KF, Godard P, Adelroth E, Ayres J, Barnes N, Barnes P, Bel E, et al. Difficult/therapy-resistant asthma: the need for an integrated approach to define clinical phenotypes, evaluate risk factors, understand pathophysiology and find novel therapies. ERS Task Force on Difficult/Therapy-Resistant Asthma. European Respiratory Society. Eur Respir J 1999;13:1198–1208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ, Greening AP, Crompton GK. Glucocorticoid resistance in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:S125–S140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinbami LJ, Moorman JE, Bailey C, Zahran HS, King M, Johnson CA, et al. Trends in asthma prevalence, health care use, and mortality in the United States, 2001–2010. NCHS Data Brief 2012;94:1–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Proceedings of the ATS workshop on refractory asthma: current understanding, recommendations, and unanswered questions. American Thoracic Society. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:2341–2351
   Google Scholar
• Barnett SBL, Nurmagambetov TA. Costs of asthma in the United States: 2002–2007. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011;127:145–152
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang AS. Steroid response in refractory asthmatics. Korean J Intern Med 2012;27:143–148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Dales R, Krewski D, Breithaupt K. Increased effects of smoking and obesity on asthma among female Canadians: the National Population Health Survey, 1994-1995. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150:255–262
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinbami OJ, Moorman JE, Liu X. Asthma prevalence, health care use, and mortality: United States, 2005–2009. 2011;32:1–16
   Google Scholar
• Bartolomei-Díaz JA, Amill-Rosario A, Claudio L, Hernández W. Asthma mortality in Puerto Rico: 1980–2007. J Asthma 2011;48:202–209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzel S. Severe asthma in adults. Am J Respir Crit Care 2005;172:149–160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarjour NN, Erzurum SC, Bleecker ER, Calhoun WJ, Castro M, Comhair SAA, Chung KF, et al. Severe asthma: lessons learned from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Severe Asthma Research Program. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012;185:356–362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dweik RA, Boggs PB, Erzurum SC, Irvin CG, Leigh MW, Lundberg JO, Olin AC, et al. An official ATS clinical practice guideline: interpretation of exhaled nitric oxide levels (FENO) for clinical applications. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184:602–615
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szefler SJ, Leung DY. Glucocorticoid-resistant asthma: pathogenesis and clinical implications for management. Eur Respir J 1997;10:1640–1647
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demoly P, Jaffuel D, Mathieu M, Sahla H, Godard P, Michel FB, Bousquet J. Glucocorticoid insensitive asthma: a one year clinical follow up pilot study. Thorax 1998;53:1063–1065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ, Adcock IM. Steroid resistance in asthma. Q J Med 1995;88:455–468
   Google Scholar
• Chan MT, Leung DY, Szefler SJ, Spahn JD. Difficult-to-control asthma: clinical characteristics of steroid-insensitive asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;101:594–601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes NC. Can guideline-defined asthma control be achieved? The Gaining Optimal Asthma Control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;170:830–831
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rhen T, Cidlowski JA. Antiinflammatory action of glucocorticoids – new mechanisms for old drugs. N Engl J Med 2005;353:1711–1723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ito K, Chung KF, Adcock IM. Update on glucocorticoid action and resistance. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117:522–543
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urnov FD, Wolffe AP. Chromatin remodeling and transcriptional activation: the cast (in order of appearance). Oncogene 2001;20:2991–3006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung DY, Hamid Q, Vottero A, Szefler SJ, Surs W, Minshall E, Chrousos GP, et al. Association of glucocorticoid insensitivity with increased expression of glucocorticoid receptor beta. J Exp Med 1997;186:1567–1574
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sher ER, Leung DY, Surs W, Kam JC, Zieg G, Kamada AK, Szefler SJ. Steroid-resistant asthma. Cellular mechanisms contributing to inadequate response to glucocorticoid therapy. J Clin Invest 1994;93:33–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Irusen E, Matthews JG, Takahashi A, Barnes PJ, Chung KF, Adcock IM. p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase-induced glucocorticoid receptor phosphorylation reduces its activity: role in steroid-insensitive asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002;109:649–657
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adcock IM, Lane SJ. Corticosteroid-insensitive asthma: molecular mechanisms. J Endocrinol 2003;178:347–355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savory JGA, Hsu B, Laquian IR, Giffin W, Reich T, Haché RJG, Lefebvre YA. Discrimination between NL1- and NL2-mediated nuclear localization of the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol Cell Biol 1999;19:1025–1037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szatmáry Z, Garabedian MJ, Vilcek J. Inhibition of glucocorticoid receptor-mediated transcriptional activation by p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase. J Biol Chem 2004;279:43708–43715
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cosío BG, Mann B, Ito K, Jazrawi E, Barnes PJ, Chung KF, Adcock IM. Histone acetylase and deacetylase activity in alveolar macrophages and blood mononocytes in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;170:141–147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzel SE, Szefler SJ, Leung DY, Sloan SI, Rex MD, Martin RJ. Bronchoscopic evaluation of severe asthma. Persistent inflammation associated with high dose glucocorticoids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:737–743
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzel SE, Balzar S, Cundall M, Chu HW. Subepithelial basement membrane immunoreactivity for matrix metalloproteinase 9: association with asthma severity, neutrophilic inflammation, and wound repair. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111:1345–1352
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cundall M, Sun Y, Miranda C, Trudeau JB, Barnes S, Wenzel SE. Neutrophil-derived matrix metalloproteinase-9 is increased in severe asthma and poorly inhibited by glucocorticoids. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;112:1064–1071
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Althuis MD, Sexton M, Prybylski D. Cigarette smoking and asthma symptom severity among adult asthmatics. J Asthma 1999;36:257–264
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverman RA. Cigarette smoking among asthmatic adults presenting to 64 emergency departments. Chest American College of Chest Physicians 2003;123:1472–1479
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson NC. Asthma and cigarette smoking. Eur Respir J 2004;24:822–833
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalmers GW, Macleod KJ, Little SA, Thomson LJ, McSharry CP, Thomson NC. Influence of cigarette smoking on inhaled corticosteroid treatment in mild asthma. Thorax 2002;57:226–230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen B, Dahl R, Karlström R, Peterson CG, Venge P. Eosinophil and neutrophil activity in asthma in a one-year trial with inhaled budesonide. The impact of smoking. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:1519–1529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilowite JS, Bennett WD, Sheetz MS, Groth ML, Nierman DM. Permeability of the bronchial mucosa to 99mTc-DTPA in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139:1139–1143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalmers GW, Macleod KJ, Thomson L, Little SA, McSharry C, Thomson NC. Smoking and airway inflammation in patients with mild asthma. Chest 2001;120:1917–1922
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costabel U, Bross KJ, Reuter C, Rühle KH, Matthys H. Alterations in immunoregulatory T-cell subsets in cigarette smokers. A phenotypic analysis of bronchoalveolar and blood lymphocytes. Chest 1986;90:39–44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll N, Elliot J, Morton A, James A. The structure of large and small airways in nonfatal and fatal asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147:405–410
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamid Q, Song Y, Kotsimbos TC, Minshall E, Bai TR, Hegele RG, Hogg JC. Inflammation of small airways in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997;100:44–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraft M, Djukanovic R, Wilson S, Holgate ST, Martin RJ. Alveolar tissue inflammation in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:1505–1510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leach CL, Davidson PJ, Boudreau RJ. Improved airway targeting with the CFC-free HFA-beclomethasone metered-dose inhaler compared with CFC-beclomethasone. Eur Respir J 1998;12:1346–1353
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goleva E, Hauk PJ, Boguniewicz J, Martin RJ, Leung DYM. Airway remodeling and lack of bronchodilator response in steroid-resistant asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007;120:1065–1072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suissa S, Ernst P, Boivin JF, Horwitz RI, Habbick B, Cockroft D, Blais L, et al. A cohort analysis of excess mortality in asthma and the use of inhaled beta-agonists. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;149(Pt 1):604–610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas M, Ziegenweidt von J, Lee AJ, Price D. High-dose inhaled corticosteroids versus add-on long-acting beta-agonists in asthma: an observational study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;123:116–121.e10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters MJ, Adcock IM, Brown CR, Barnes PJ. Beta-adrenoceptor agonists interfere with glucocorticoid receptor DNA binding in rat lung. Eur J Pharmacol 1995;289:275–281
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rider C, King EM, Holden NS, Giembycz MA, Newton R. Inflammatory stimuli inhibit glucocorticoid-dependent transactivation in human pulmonary epithelial cells: rescue by long-acting B2-adrenergic agonists. JPET 2011;338:860–869
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin RJ, Szefler SJ, Chinchilli VM, Kraft M, Dolovich M, Boushey HA, Cherniack RM, et al. Systemic effect comparisons of six inhaled corticosteroid preparations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:1377–1383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobande PO, Kercsmar CM. Inhaled corticosteroids in asthma management. Respir Care 2008;53:625–633 –discussion, 633–634
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill JM, Tattersfield AE. Corticosteroid sparing agents in asthma. Thorax 1995;50:577–582
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiner RJ, Nunn AJ, Chung KF, Geddes DM. Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of methotrexate in steroid-dependent asthma. Lancet 1990;336:137–140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart GE, Diaz JD, Lockey RF, Seleznick MJ, Trudeau WL, Ledford DK. Comparison of oral pulse methotrexate with placebo in the treatment of severe glucocorticosteroid-dependent asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1994;94(Pt 1):482–489
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bousquet J, Cabrera P, Berkman N, Buhl R, Holgate S, Wenzel S, Fox H, et al. The effect of treatment with omalizumab, an anti-IgE antibody, on asthma exacerbations and emergency medical visits in patients with severe persistent asthma. Allergy 2005;60:302–308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Domingo C, Moreno A, José Amengual M, Montón C, Suárez D, Pomares X. Omalizumab in the management of oral corticosteroid-dependent IGE-mediated asthma patients. Curr Med Res Opin 2011;27:45–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polosa R, Casale T. Monoclonal antibodies for chronic refractory asthma and pipeline developments. Drug Discov Today 2012;17:591–599
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenzel SE, Barnes PJ, Bleecker ER, Bousquet J, Busse W, Dahlen SE, Holgate ST, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of tumor necrosis factor-alpha blockade in severe persistent asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;179:549–558
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orange JS, Hossny EM, Weiler CR, Ballow M, Berger M, Bonilla FA, Buckley R, et al. Use of intravenous immunoglobulin in human disease: a review of evidence by members of the Primary Immunodeficiency Committee of the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117:S525–S553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon H-U, Seelbach H, Ehmann R, Schmitz M. Clinical and immunological effects of low-dose IFN-alpha treatment in patients with corticosteroid-resistant asthma. Allergy 2003;58:1250–1255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nair P, Pizzichini MMM, Kjarsgaard M, Inman MD, Efthimiadis A, Pizzichini E, Hargreave FE, et al. Mepolizumab for prednisone-dependent asthma with sputum eosinophilia. N Engl J Med 2009;360:985–993
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haldar P, Brightling CE, Hargadon B, Gupta S, Monteiro W, Sousa A, Marshall RP, et al. Mepolizumab and exacerbations of refractory eosinophilic asthma. N Engl J Med 2009;360:973–984
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antoniu SA. Pitrakinra, a dual IL-4/IL-13 antagonist for the potential treatment of asthma and eczema. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2010;11:1286–1294
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Takayama G, Arima K, Kanaji T, Toda S, Tanaka H, Shoji S, McKenzie AN, et al. Periostin: a novel component of subepithelial fibrosis of bronchial asthma downstream of IL-4 and IL-13 signals. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;118:98–104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corren J, Lemanske RF, Hanania NA, Korenblat PE, Parsey MV, Arron JR, Harris JM, et al. Lebrikizumab treatment in adults with asthma. N Engl J Med 2011;365:1088–1098
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lukacs NW, Berlin AA, Franz-Bacon K, Sásik R, Sprague LJ, Ly TW, Hardiman G, et al. CRTH2 antagonism significantly ameliorates airway hyperreactivity and downregulates inflammation-induced genes in a mouse model of airway inflammation. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2008;295:L767–L779
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ. New therapies for asthma: is there any progress? Trends Pharmacol Sci 2010;31:335–343
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar