Mapping body fat distribution: A key step towards the identification of the vulnerable patient?

References

• McGee DL. Body mass index and mortality: a meta-analysis based on person-level data from twenty-six observational studies. Ann Epidemiol. 2005;15:87–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balkau B, Deanfield JE, Després JP, Bassand JP, Fox KA, Smith SC Jr, . International Day for the Evaluation of Abdominal Obesity (IDEA): a study of waist circumference, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes mellitus in 168,000 primary care patients in 63 countries. Circulation. 2007; 116:1942–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, . Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004; 364:937–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohlson LO, Larsson B, Svardsudd K, Welin L, Eriksson H, Wilhelmsen L, . The influence of body fat distribution on the incidence of diabetes mellitus. 13.5 years of follow-up of the participants in the study of men born in 1913. Diabetes. 1985;34:1055–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pischon T, Lahmann PH, Boeing H, Friedenreich C, Norat T, Tjonneland A, . Body size and risk of colon and rectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006;98:920–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang C, Rexrode KM, van Dam RM, Li TY, Hu FB. Abdominal obesity and the risk of all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: sixteen years of follow-up in US women. Circulation. 2008;117:1658–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown LK. A waist is a terrible thing to mind: central obesity, the metabolic syndrome, and sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome. Chest. 2002;122:774–8.
   Google Scholar
• Poirier P, Giles TD, Bray GA, Hong Y, Stern JS, Pi-Sunyer FX, . Obesity and cardiovascular disease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss: an update of the 1997 American Heart Association Scientific Statement on Obesity and Heart Disease from the Obesity Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism. Circulation. 2006;113:898–918.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemieux I, Drapeau V, Richard D, Bergeron J, Marceau P, Biron S, . Waist girth does not predict metabolic complications in severely obese men. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:1417–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasouli N, Molavi B, Elbein SC, Kern PA. Ectopic fat accumulation and metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2007;9:1–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vague J. La différenciation sexuelle : facteur déterminant des formes de l’obesité. Presse Med. 1947;55:339–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvist H, Sjostrom L, Tylen U. Adipose tissue volume determinations in women by computed tomography: technical considerations. Int J Obes. 1986;10:53–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krotkiewski M, Bjorntorp P, Sjostrom L, Smith U. Impact of obesity on metabolism in men and women. Importance of regional adipose tissue distribution. J Clin Invest. 1983;72:1150–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katzmarzyk PT, Bray GA, Greenway FL, Johnson WD, Newton RL Jr, Ravussin E, . Racial differences in abdominal depot-specific adiposity in white and African American adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:7–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sniderman AD, Bhopal R, Prabhakaran D, Sarrafzadegan N, Tchernof A. Why might South Asians be so susceptible to central obesity and its atherogenic consequences? The adipose tissue overflow hypothesis. Int J Epidemiol. 2007;36:220–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kadowaki T, Sekikawa A, Murata K, Maegawa H, Takamiya T, Okamura T, . Japanese men have larger areas of visceral adipose tissue than Caucasian men in the same levels of waist circumference in a population-based study. Int J Obes (Lond). 2006;30:1163–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman DJ, Wang Z, Gallagher D, Heymsfield SB. Comparison of visceral adipose tissue mass in adult African Americans and whites. Obes Res. 2005;13:66–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rice T, Pérusse L, Bouchard C, Rao DC. Familial clustering of abdominal visceral fat and total fat mass: the Québec Family Study. Obes Res. 1996;4:253–61.
   Google Scholar
• Romaguera D, Angquist L, Du H, Jakobsen MU, Forouhi NG, Halkjaer J, . Dietary determinants of changes in waist circumference adjusted for body mass index—a proxy measure of visceral adiposity. PLoS ONE. 2010;5:e11588.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arner P. Human fat cell lipolysis: biochemistry, regulation and clinical role. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;19:471–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen MD. Role of body fat distribution and the metabolic complications of obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(11 Suppl 1):S57–63.
   Google Scholar
• Stefan N, Machann J, Schick F, Claussen CD, Thamer C, Fritsche A, . New imaging techniques of fat, muscle and liver within the context of determining insulin sensitivity. Horm Res. 2005;64 Suppl 3:38–44.
   Google Scholar
• Kuk JL, Katzmarzyk PT, Nichaman MZ, Church TS, Blair SN, Ross R. Visceral fat is an independent predictor of all-cause mortality in men. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14:336–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujimoto WY, Bergstrom RW, Boyko EJ, Chen KW, Leonetti DL, Newell-Morris L, . Visceral adiposity and incident coronary heart disease in Japanese-American men. The 10-year follow-up results of the Seattle Japanese-American Community Diabetes Study. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:1808–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyko EJ, Fujimoto WY, Leonetti DL, Newell-Morris L. Visceral adiposity and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study among Japanese Americans. Diabetes Care. 2000; 23:465–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicklas BJ, Penninx BW, Cesari M, Kritchevsky SB, Newman AB, Kanaya AM, . Association of visceral adipose tissue with incident myocardial infarction in older men and women: the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;160:741–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicklas BJ, Cesari M, Penninx BW, Kritchevsky SB, Ding J, Newman A, . Abdominal obesity is an independent risk factor for chronic heart failure in older people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2006;54:413–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lear SA, Humphries KH, Kohli S, Frohlich JJ, Birmingham CL, Mancini GB. Visceral adipose tissue, a potential risk factor for carotid atherosclerosis: results of the Multicultural Community Health Assessment Trial (M-CHAT). Stroke. 2007;38:2422–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer CK, von Muhlen D, Gross JL, Barrett-Connor E. A prospective study of abdominal obesity and coronary artery calcium progression in older adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:5039–44.
   Google Scholar
• Carr MC, Brunzell JD. Abdominal obesity and dyslipidemia in the metabolic syndrome: importance of type 2 diabetes and familial combined hyperlipidemia in coronary artery disease risk. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89: 2601–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Després JP. Is visceral obesity the cause of the metabolic syndrome? Ann Med. 2006;38:52–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet. 2005;365:1415–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alberti KG, Zimmet P, Shaw J. The metabolic syndrome—a new worldwide definition. Lancet. 2005;366:1059–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, Donato KA, Eckel RH, Franklin BA, . Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement. Circulation. 2005;112:2735–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galassi A, Reynolds K, He J. Metabolic syndrome and risk of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis. Am J Med. 2006;119:812–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gami AS, Witt BJ, Howard DE, Erwin PJ, Gami LA, Somers VK, . Metabolic syndrome and risk of incident cardiovascular events and death: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:403–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn R, Buse J, Ferrannini E, Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal: joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:2289–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr DB, Utzschneider KM, Hull RL, Kodama K, Retzlaff BM, Brunzell JD, . Intra-abdominal fat is a major determinant of the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria for the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes. 2004;53:2087–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong J, Boyko EJ, Utzschneider KM, McNeely MJ, Hayashi T, Carr DB, . Intra-abdominal fat accumulation predicts the development of the metabolic syndrome in non-diabetic Japanese-Americans. Diabetologia. 2007;50: 1156–60.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arsenault BJ, Lachance D, Lemieux I, Alméras N, Tremblay A, Bouchard C, . Visceral adipose tissue accumulation, cardiorespiratory fitness, and features of the metabolic syndrome. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1518–25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fox CS, Massaro JM, Hoffmann U, Pou KM, Maurovich-Horvat P, Liu CY, . Abdominal visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue compartments: association with metabolic risk factors in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2007;116:39–48.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith SR, Lovejoy JC, Greenway F, Ryan D, deJonge L, de la Bretonne J, . Contributions of total body fat, abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue compartments, and visceral adipose tissue to the metabolic complications of obesity. Metabolism. 2001;50:425–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pou KM, Massaro JM, Hoffmann U, Vasan RS, Maurovich-Horvat P, Larson MG, . Visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue volumes are cross-sectionally related to markers of inflammation and oxidative stress: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2007;116:1234–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cartier A, Lemieux I, Alméras N, Tremblay A, Bergeron J, Després JP. Visceral obesity and plasma glucose-insulin homeostasis: contributions of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:1931–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piché ME, Lemieux S, Weisnagel SJ, Corneau L, Nadeau A, Bergeron J. Relation of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and fibrinogen to abdominal adipose tissue, blood pressure, and cholesterol and triglyceride levels in healthy postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:92–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter SA, Massaro JM, Hoffmann U, Vasan RS, O’Donnel CJ, Fox CS. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue: a protective fat depot? Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1068–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preis SR, Massaro JM, Robins SJ, Hoffmann U, Vasan RS, Irlbeck T, . Abdominal subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue and insulin resistance in the Framingham Heart Study. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010;18:2191–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canoy D, Boekholdt SM, Wareham N, Luben R, Welch A, Bingham S, . Body fat distribution and risk of coronary heart disease in men and women in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition in Norfolk cohort: a population-based prospective study. Circulation. 2007;116:2933–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tchernof A. Visceral adipocytes and the metabolic syndrome. Nutr Rev. 2007;65(6 Pt 2):S24–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yudkin JS, Kumari M, Humphries SE, Mohamed-Ali V. Inflammation, obesity, stress and coronary heart disease: is interleukin-6 the link? Atherosclerosis. 2000;148:209–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hube F, Hauner H. The role of TNF-alpha in human adipose tissue: prevention of weight gain at the expense of insulin resistance? Horm Metab Res. 1999;31:626–31.
   Google Scholar
• Arnaud C, Burger F, Steffens S, Veillard NR, Nguyen TH, Trono D, . Statins reduce interleukin-6-induced C-reactive protein in human hepatocytes: new evidence for direct antiinflammatory effects of statins. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:1231–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen S, Guo Z, Johnson CM, Hensrud DD, Jensen MD. Splanchnic lipolysis in human obesity. J Clin Invest. 2004;113:1582–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frayn KN, Arner P, Yki-Jarvinen H. Fatty acid metabolism in adipose tissue, muscle and liver in health and disease. Essays Biochem. 2006;42:89–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verrijken A, Francque S, Mertens I, Talloen M, Peiffer F, Van Gaal L. Visceral adipose tissue and inflammation correlate with elevated liver tests in a cohort of overweight and obese patients. Int J Obes (Lond). 2010;34:899–907.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thamer C, Machann J, Haap M, Stefan N, Heller E, Schnodt B, . Intrahepatic lipids are predicted by visceral adipose tissue mass in healthy subjects. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2726–9.
   Google Scholar
• Eguchi Y, Eguchi T, Mizuta T, Ide Y, Yasutake T, Iwakiri R, . Visceral fat accumulation and insulin resistance are important factors in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Gastroenterol. 2006;41:462–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koda M, Kawakami M, Murawaki Y, Senda M. The impact of visceral fat in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. J Gastroenterol. 2007;42:897–903.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace TM, Utzschneider KM, Tong J, Carr DB, Zraika S, Bankson DD, . Relationship of liver enzymes to insulin sensitivity and intra-abdominal fat. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:2673–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park BJ, Kim YJ, Kim DH, Kim W, Jung YJ, Yoon JH, . Visceral adipose tissue area is an independent risk factor for hepatic steatosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008;23:900–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libby P. Inflammation and cardiovascular disease mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:456S–60S.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross R, Glomset JA. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis N Engl J Med. 1976;295:369–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hotamisligil GS. Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature. 2006;444:860–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lafontan M, Girard J. Impact of visceral adipose tissue on liver metabolism. Part I: heterogeneity of adipose tissue and functional properties of visceral adipose tissue. Diabetes Metab. 2008;34(4 Pt 1):317–27.
   Google Scholar
• Rocha VZ, Libby P. The multiple facets of the fat tissue. Thyroid. 2008;18:175–83.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nishimura S, Manabe I, Nagasaki M, Seo K, Yamashita H, Hosoya Y, . In vivo imaging in mice reveals local cell dynamics and inflammation in obese adipose tissue. J Clin Invest. 2008;118:710–21.
   Google Scholar
• Kintscher U, Hartge M, Hess K, Foryst-Ludwig A, Clemenz M, Wabitsch M, . T-lymphocyte infiltration in visceral adipose tissue: a primary event in adipose tissue inflammation and the development of obesity-mediated insulin resistance. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1304–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotter V, Nagaev I, Smith U. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) induces insulin resistance in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and is, like IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, overexpressed in human fat cells from insulin-resistant subjects. J Biol Chem. 2003; 278:45777–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senn JJ, Klover PJ, Nowak IA, Mooney RA. Interleukin-6 induces cellular insulin resistance in hepatocytes. Diabetes. 2002;51:3391–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cartier A, Lemieux I, Alméras N, Tremblay A, Bergeron J, Després JP. Visceral obesity and plasma glucose-insulin homeostasis: contributions of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:1931–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontana L, Eagon JC, Trujillo ME, Scherer PE, Klein S. Visceral fat adipokine secretion is associated with systemic inflammation in obese humans. Diabetes. 2007;56:1010–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St-Pierre AC, Cantin B, Bergeron J, Pirro M, Dagenais GR, Després JP, . Inflammatory markers and long-term risk of ischemic heart disease in men. A 13-year follow-up of the Quebec Cardiovascular Study. Atherosclerosis. 2005; 182:315–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson CC, Smith AE, Yarnell JW, Rumley A, Ben-Shlomo Y, Lowe GD. The associations of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and downstream inflammatory markers with risk of cardiovascular disease: the Caerphilly Study. Atherosclerosis. 2010;209:551–7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsigos C, Papanicolaou DA, Kyrou I, Defensor R, Mitsiadis CS, Chrousos GP. Dose-dependent effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 on glucose regulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:4167–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Côté M, Mauriège P, Bergeron J, Alméras N, Tremblay A, Lemieux I, . Adiponectinemia in visceral obesity: impact on glucose tolerance and plasma lipoprotein and lipid levels in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90: 1434–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okamoto Y, Kihara S, Funahashi T, Matsuzawa Y, Libby P. Adiponectin: a key adipocytokine in metabolic syndrome. Clin Sci (Lond). 2006;110:267–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kadowaki T, Yamauchi T, Kubota N, Hara K, Ueki K, Tobe K. Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2006;116:1784–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuzawa Y, Funahashi T, Kihara S, Shimomura I. Adiponectin and metabolic syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:29–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu A, Wang Y, Keshaw H, Xu LY, Lam KS, Cooper GJ. The fat-derived hormone adiponectin alleviates alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver diseases in mice. J Clin Invest. 2003;112:91–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Herpen NA, Schrauwen-Hinderling VB. Lipid accumulation in non-adipose tissue and lipotoxicity. Physiol Behav. 2008;94:231–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Caldwell SH. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: summary of an AASLD Single Topic Conference. Hepatology. 2003;37:1202–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazo M, Clark JM. The epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a global perspective. Semin Liver Dis. 2008; 28:339–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browning JD, Szczepaniak LS, Dobbins R, Nuremberg P, Horton JD, Cohen JC, . Prevalence of hepatic steatosis in an urban population in the United States: impact of ethnicity. Hepatology. 2004;40:1387–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotronen A, Juurinen L, Hakkarainen A, Westerbacka J, Corner A, Bergholm R, . Liver fat is increased in type 2 diabetic patients and underestimated by serum alanine aminotransferase compared with equally obese nondiabetic subjects. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:165–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelley DE, McKolanis TM, Hegazi RA, Kuller LH, Kalhan SC. Fatty liver in type 2 diabetes mellitus: relation to regional adiposity, fatty acids, and insulin resistance. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003;285:E906–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen-Duy TB, Nichaman MZ, Church TS, Blair SN, Ross R. Visceral fat and liver fat are independent predictors of metabolic risk factors in men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003;284:E1065–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuk JL, Nichaman MZ, Church TS, Blair SN, Ross R. Liver fat is not a marker of metabolic risk in lean premenopausal women. Metabolism. 2004;53:1066–71.
   Google Scholar
• Fracanzani AL, Valenti L, Bugianesi E, Vanni E, Grieco A, Miele L, . Risk of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and low visceral adiposity. J Hepatol. 2011;54:1244-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gastaldelli A, Cusi K, Pettiti M, Hardies J, Miyazaki Y, Berria R, . Relationship between hepatic/visceral fat and hepatic insulin resistance in nondiabetic and type 2 diabetic subjects. Gastroenterology. 2007;133:496–506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guerrero R, Vega GL, Grundy SM, Browning JD. Ethnic differences in hepatic steatosis: an insulin resistance paradox? Hepatology. 2009;49:791–801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amaro A, Fabbrini E, Kars M, Yue P, Schechtman K, Schonfeld G, . Dissociation between intrahepatic triglyceride content and insulin resistance in familial hypobetalipoproteinemia. Gastroenterology. 2010;139:149–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith HL, Willius FA. Adiposity of the heart. Arch Int Med. 1933;52:811–931.
   Google Scholar
• McGavock JM, Victor RG, Unger RH, Szczepaniak LS. Adiposity of the heart, revisited. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:517–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabkin SW. Epicardial fat: properties, function and relationship to obesity. Obes Rev. 2007;8:253–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iacobellis G, Sharma AM. Epicardial adipose tissue as new cardio-metabolic risk marker and potential therapeutic target in the metabolic syndrome. Curr Pharm Des. 2007;13: 2180–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy PE. Lipid droplets in the heart interstitium: concentration and distribution. Recent Adv Stud Cardiac Struct Metab. 1975;10:17–27.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shirani J, Berezowski K, Roberts WC. Quantitative measurement of normal and excessive (cor adiposum) subepicardial adipose tissue, its clinical significance, and its effect on electrocardiographic QRS voltage. Am J Cardiol. 1995;76:414–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Djaberi R, Schuijf JD, van Werkhoven JM, Nucifora G, Jukema JW, Bax JJ. Relation of epicardial adipose tissue to coronary atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol. 2008;102:1602–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gorter PM, de Vos AM, van der Graaf Y, Stella PR, Doevendans PA, Meijs MF, . Relation of epicardial and pericoronary fat to coronary atherosclerosis and coronary artery calcium in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Am J Cardiol. 2008;102:380–5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahn SG, Lim HS, Joe DY, Kang SJ, Choi BJ, Choi SY, . Relationship of epicardial adipose tissue by echocardiography to coronary artery disease. Heart. 2008; 94:e7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greif M, Becker A, von Ziegler F, Lebherz C, Lehrke M, Broedl UC, . Pericardial adipose tissue determined by dual source CT is a risk factor for coronary atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29:781–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Divers J, Wagenknecht LE, Bowden DW, Carr JJ, Hightower RC, Register TC, . Ethnic differences in the relationship between pericardial adipose tissue and coronary artery calcified plaque: African-American-diabetes heart study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:5382–9.
   Google Scholar
• Rosito GA, Massaro JM, Hoffmann U, Ruberg FL, Mahabadi AA, Vasan RS, . Pericardial fat, visceral abdominal fat, cardiovascular disease risk factors, and vascular calcification in a community-based sample: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2008;117:605–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahabadi AA, Massaro JM, Rosito GA, Levy D, Murabito JM, Wolf PA, . Association of pericardial fat, intrathoracic fat, and visceral abdominal fat with cardiovascular disease burden: the Framingham Heart Study. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:850–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox CS, Gona P, Hoffmann U, Porter SA, Salton CJ, Massaro JM, . Pericardial fat, intrathoracic fat, and measures of left ventricular structure and function: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2009;119:1586–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGavock JM, Lingvay I, Zib I, Tillery T, Salas N, Unger R, . Cardiac steatosis in diabetes mellitus: a 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Circulation. 2007;116: 1170–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou YT, Grayburn P, Karim A, Shimabukuro M, Higa M, Baetens D, . Lipotoxic heart disease in obese rats: implications for human obesity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000;97:1784–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paradise NF, Pilati CF, Payne WR, Finkelstein JA. Left ventricular function of the isolated, genetically obese rat's heart. Am J Physiol. 1985;248(4 Pt 2):H438–44.
   Google Scholar
• Kankaanpaa M, Lehto HR, Parkka JP, Komu M, Viljanen A, Ferrannini E, . Myocardial triglyceride content and epicardial fat mass in human obesity: relationship to left ventricular function and serum free fatty acid levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:4689–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim MK, Tomita T, Kim MJ, Sasai H, Maeda S, Tanaka K. Aerobic exercise training reduces epicardial fat in obese men. J Appl Physiol. 2009;106:5–11.
   Google Scholar
• Sacks HS. Weight loss in obesity reduces epicardial fat thickness; so what? J Appl Physiol. 2009;106:1–2.
   Google Scholar
• Sironi AM, Gastaldelli A, Mari A, Ciociaro D, Positano V, Buzzigoli E, . Visceral fat in hypertension: influence on insulin resistance and beta-cell function. Hypertension. 2004;44:127–33.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazurek T, Zhang L, Zalewski A, Mannion JD, Diehl JT, Arafat H, . Human epicardial adipose tissue is a source of inflammatory mediators. Circulation. 2003;108:2460–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eiras S, Teijeira-Fernandez E, Shamagian LG, Fernandez AL, Vazquez-Boquete A, Gonzalez-Juanatey JR. Extension of coronary artery disease is associated with increased IL-6 and decreased adiponectin gene expression in epicardial adipose tissue. Cytokine. 2008;43:174–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teijeira-Fernandez E, Eiras S, Grigorian-Shamagian L, Fernandez A, Adrio B, Gonzalez-Juanatey JR. Epicardial adipose tissue expression of adiponectin is lower in patients with hypertension. J Hum Hypertens. 2008;22:856–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sacks HS, Fain JN, Cheema P, Bahouth SW, Garrett E, Wolf RY, . Inflammatory genes in epicardial fat contiguous with coronary atherosclerosis in the metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: changes associated with pioglitazone. Diabetes Care.2011;34:730–3.
   Google Scholar
• Jacob S, Machann J, Rett K, Brechtel K, Volk A, Renn W, . Association of increased intramyocellular lipid content with insulin resistance in lean nondiabetic offspring of type 2 diabetic subjects. Diabetes. 1999;48:1113–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thamer C, Machann J, Bachmann O, Haap M, Dahl D, Wietek B, . Intramyocellular lipids: anthropometric determinants and relationships with maximal aerobic capacity and insulin sensitivity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:1785–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yim JE, Heshka S, Albu J, Heymsfield S, Kuznia P, Harris T, . Intermuscular adipose tissue rivals visceral adipose tissue in independent associations with cardiovascular risk. Int J Obes (Lond). 2007;31:1400–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodpaster BH, Krishnaswami S, Resnick H, Kelley DE, Haggerty C, Harris TB, . Association between regional adipose tissue distribution and both type 2 diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in elderly men and women. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:372–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodpaster BH, Krishnaswami S, Harris TB, Katsiaras A, Kritchevsky SB, Simonsick EM, . Obesity, regional body fat distribution, and the metabolic syndrome in older men and women. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:777–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delmonico MJ, Harris TB, Visser M, Park SW, Conroy MB, Velasquez-Mieyer P, . Longitudinal study of muscle strength, quality, and adipose tissue infiltration. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;90:1579–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotronen A, Seppala-Lindroos A, Bergholm R, Yki-Jarvinen H. Tissue specificity of insulin resistance in humans: fat in the liver rather than muscle is associated with features of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetologia. 2008;51:130–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bajaj M, Baig R, Suraamornkul S, Hardies LJ, Coletta DK, Cline GW, . Effects of pioglitazone on intramyocellular fat metabolism in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.2010;95:1916–23.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bollheimer LC, Skelly RH, Chester MW, McGarry JD, Rhodes CJ. Chronic exposure to free fatty acid reduces pancreatic beta cell insulin content by increasing basal insulin secretion that is not compensated for by a corresponding increase in proinsulin biosynthesis translation. J Clin Invest. 1998;101:1094–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unger RH, Zhou YT. Lipotoxicity of beta-cells in obesity and in other causes of fatty acid spillover. Diabetes. 2001;50 Suppl 1:S118–21.
   Google Scholar
• Lee Y, Hirose H, Ohneda M, Johnson JH, McGarry JD, Unger RH. Beta-cell lipotoxicity in the pathogenesis of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus of obese rats: impairment in adipocyte-beta-cell relationships. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 8;91:10878–82.
   Google Scholar
• van der Zijl NJ, Goossens GH, Moors CC, van Raalte DH, Muskiet MH, Pouwels PJ, . Ectopic fat storage in the pancreas, liver, and abdominal fat depots: impact on beta-cell function in individuals with impaired glucose metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:459–67.
   Google Scholar
• Heni M, Machann J, Staiger H, Schwenzer NF, Peter A, Schick F, . Pancreatic fat is negatively associated with insulin secretion in individuals with impaired fasting glucose and/or impaired glucose tolerance: a nuclear magnetic resonance study. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2010;26:200–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunham LR, Kruit JK, Pape TD, Timmins JM, Reuwer AQ, Vasanji Z, . Beta-cell ABCA1 influences insulin secretion, glucose homeostasis and response to thiazolidinedione treatment. Nat Med. 2007;13:340–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergeer M, Brunham LR, Koetsveld J, Kruit JK, Verchere CB, Kastelein JJ, . Carriers of loss-of-function mutations in ABCA1 display pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction. Diabetes Care. 2010;33:869–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Raalte DH, van der Zijl NJ, Diamant M. Pancreatic steatosis in humans: cause or marker of lipotoxicity? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13:478–85.
   Google Scholar
• Paré A, Dumont M, Lemieux I, Brochu M, Alméras N, Lemieux S, . Is the relationship between adipose tissue and waist girth altered by weight loss in obese men? Obes Res. 2001;9:526–34.
   Google Scholar
• Longo R, Ricci C, Masutti F, Vidimari R, Croce LS, Bercich L, . Fatty infiltration of the liver. Quantification by 1H localized magnetic resonance spectroscopy and comparison with computed tomography. Invest Radiol. 1993;28:297–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haffner SM, Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, Pyorala K, Laakso M. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998;339: 229–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dagenais GR, St-Pierre A, Gilbert P, Lamarche B, Després JP, Bernard PM, . Comparison of prognosis for men with type 2 diabetes mellitus and men with cardiovascular disease. CMAJ. 2009;180:40–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saydah S, Tao M, Imperatore G, Gregg E. GHb level and subsequent mortality among adults in the U.S. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1440–6.
   Google Scholar
• Nathan DM. Long-term complications of diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;328:1676–85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orasanu G, Plutzky J. The pathologic continuum of diabetic vascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53(5 Suppl):S35–42.
   Google Scholar
• Creager MA, Luscher TF, Cosentino F, Beckman JA. Diabetes and vascular disease: pathophysiology, clinical consequences, and medical therapy: Part I. Circulation. 2003;108:1527–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, Neal B, Billot L, Woodward M, . Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2560–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerstein HC, Miller ME, Byington RP, Goff DC Jr, Bigger JT, Buse JB, . Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2545–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, Reda D, Emanuele N, Reaven PD, . Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:129–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackburn P, Lemieux I, Lamarche B, Bergeron J, Perron P, Tremblay G, . Type 2 diabetes without the atherogenic metabolic triad does not predict angiographically assessed coronary artery disease in women. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:170–2.
   Google Scholar
• Turner RC, Millns H, Neil HA, Stratton IM, Manley SE, Matthews DR, . Risk factors for coronary artery disease in non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS: 23). BMJ. 1998;316:823–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehto S, Ronnemaa T, Haffner SM, Pyorala K, Kallio V, Laakso M. Dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia predict coronary heart disease events in middle-aged patients with NIDDM. Diabetes. 1997;46:1354–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander CM, Landsman PB, Teutsch SM, Haffner SM. NCEP-defined metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and prevalence of coronary heart disease among NHANES III participants age 50 years and older. Diabetes. 2003;52:1210–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, . Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orchard TJ, Temprosa M, Goldberg R, Haffner S, Ratner R, Marcovina S, . The effect of metformin and intensive lifestyle intervention on the metabolic syndrome: the Diabetes Prevention Program randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142:611–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wing RR. Long-term effects of a lifestyle intervention on weight and cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus: four-year results of the Look AHEAD trial. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170: 1566–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deedwania P, Barter P, Carmena R, Fruchart JC, Grundy SM, Haffner S, . Reduction of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients with coronary heart disease and metabolic syndrome: analysis of the Treating to New Targets study. Lancet. 2006;368:919–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballantyne CM, Olsson AG, Cook TJ, Mercuri MF, Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J. Influence of low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and elevated triglyceride on coronary heart disease events and response to simvastatin therapy in 4S. Circulation. 2001;104:3046–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott R, O’Brien R, Fulcher G, Pardy C, D’Emden M, Tse D, . Effects of fenofibrate treatment on cardiovascular disease risk in 9,795 individuals with type 2 diabetes and various components of the metabolic syndrome: the Fenofibrate Intervention and Event Lowering in Diabetes (FIELD) study. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:493–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ACCORD Study Group; Ginsberg HN, Elam MB, Lovato LC, Crouse JR 3rd, Leiter LA, Linz P, . Effects of combination lipid therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med.2010;362:1563–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunink MG, Goldman L, Tosteson AN, Mittleman MA, Goldman PA, Williams LW, . The recent decline in mortality from coronary heart disease, 1980–1990. The effect of secular trends in risk factors and treatment. JAMA. 1997;277:535–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford ES, Ajani UA, Croft JB, Critchley JA, Labarthe DR, Kottke TE, . Explaining the decrease in U.S. deaths from coronary disease, 1980–2000. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2388–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hossain P, Kawar B, El Nahas M. Obesity and diabetes in the developing world—a growing challenge. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:213–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olshansky SJ, Passaro DJ, Hershow RC, Layden J, Carnes BA, Brody J, . A potential decline in life expectancy in the United States in the 21st century. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1138–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar