Oestrogen Effects on Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts

References

• Parfitt A M. Quantam concept of bone remodeling and turnover: implications for the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. Calc Tissue Int 1979; 28: 1–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parfitt A M, Mathews C HE, Villaneuva A R, Kleerekoper M, Frame B, Rao D S. Relationships between surface, volume, and thickness of iliac trabecular bone in aging and in osteoporosis. J Clin Invest 1983; 72: 1396–1409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erlksen E F, Hodgson S F, Eastell R, Cedel S L, O'Fallon W M, Rlggs B L. Cancellous bone remodeling in type I (postmenopausal) osteoporosis: quantitative assessment of rates of formation, resorption, and bone loss at tissue and cellular levels. J Bone Miner Res 1990; 5: 311–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatson G T. On the treatment of inoperable cases of carcinoma of the mamma: suggestions for a new method of treatment, with illustrative cases. Lancet 1896; ii: 104–7
   Google Scholar
• Gorski J, Toft D O, Shyamala G, Smith D, Notides A. Hormone receptors: studies on the interaction of estrogens with the uterus. Recent Prog Horm Res 1968; 24: 45–80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jensen E V, Jacobson H I. Basic guides to the mechanism of estrogen action. Recent Prog Horm Res 1968; 18: 387–414
   Google Scholar
• Landers J P, Spelsberg T C. New concepts in steroid hormone action: transcription factors, proto‐oncogenes and the cascade model for steroid regulation of gene expression. Crit Rev Euk Gene Exp 1992; 2: 19–63
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwabe J WR, Neuhaus D, Rhodes D. Solution structure of the DNA‐binding domain of the oestrogen receptor. Nature 1990; 348: 458–61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loosfelt H, Logeat F, Van Hai M T, Milgrom E. The rabbit progesterone receptor. Evidence for a single steroid‐binding subunit and characterization of receptor mRNA. J Biol Chem 1984; 259: 14196–202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollenberg S M, Weinberger C, Ong E S, et al. Primary structure and expression of a functional human glucocorticoid receptor. Nature 1985; 318: 635–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conneely O M, Sullivan W P, Toft D O, et al. Molecular cloning of the chicken progesterone receptor. Science 1986; 233: 767–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danielsen M, Northrop J P, Ringold G M. The mouse glucocorticoid receptor: mapping of functional domains by cloning, sequencing and expression of wild‐type and mutant receptor proteins. EMBO J 1986; 5: 2513–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miesfeld R, Rusconi S, Godowski P J, et al. Genetic complementation of glucocorticoid receptor deficiency by expression of cloned receptor cDNA. Cell 1986; 46: 389–99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter P, Green S, Greene G, et al. Cloning of the human estrogen receptor cDNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1985; 82: 7889–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green S, Kumar V, Krust A, Chambon P. The oestrogen receptor: structure and function. Recent Advances in Steroid Hormone Action, V K Moudgil. Walter de Gruyter and Co., Berlin 1987; 161–83
   Google Scholar
• Krust A, Green S, Argos P, Kumar V, Walter P, Bornert J ‐M, Chambon P. The chicken oestrogen receptor sequence: homology with v‐erbA and the human oestrogen and glucocorticoid receptors. EMBO J 1986; 5: 891–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White R, Lees J A, Needham M, Ham J, Parker M. Structural organization and expression of the mouse estrogen receptor. Mol Endocrinol 1987; 1: 735–44
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weiler I J, Lew D, Shapiro D J. The Xenopus laevis estrogen receptor: sequence homology with human and avian receptors and‐ identification of multiple estrogen receptor messenger ribonucleic acids. Mol Endocrinol 1987; 1: 355–62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pakdel F, Le Guellec C, Vaillant C, Roux M GL, Valotaire Y. Identification and estrogen induction of two estrogen receptors (ER) messenger ribonucleic acids in the rainbow trout liver: sequence homology with other ERs. Mol Endocrinol 1989; 3: 44–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akner S, Sundqvist K, Denis M, Wikstrom A, Gustafs‐son J. Immunocytochemical localization of glucocorticoid receptor in human gingival fibroblasts and evidence for a colocalization of glucocorticoid receptor with cytoplasmic microtubies. Eur J Cell Biol 1990; 53: 390–401
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bresnick E H, Dalman F C, Pratt W P. Direct stoichiometric evidence that the untransformed Mr 300,000, 9S, glucocorticoid receptor is a core unit derived from a larger heteromeric complex. Biochem 1990; 29: 520–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baulieu E ‐E. Steroid hormone antagonists at the receptor level: a role for the heat‐shock protein MW 90,000 (hsp 90). J Cell Biochem 1987; 35: 161–74
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratt W B. Transformation of glucocorticoid and progesterone receptors to the DNA‐binding state. J Cell Biochem 1987; 35: 51–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman J E. Polypeptide chain binding proteins: catalyst of protein folding and related processes in cells. Cell 1989; 59: 591–601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis R J, van der Vies S M. Molecular chaperones. Annu Rev Biochem 1991; 60: 321–47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis R J. Proteins as molecular chaperones. Nature 1987; 328: 378–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King W S, Greene G L. Monoclonal antibodies localize oestrogen receptor in the nuclei of target cells. Nature 1984; 307: 745–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorski J, Furlow J D, Murdoch F E, Fritsch M, Kaneko K, Ying C, Malayer J R. Perturbations in the model of estrogen receptor regulation of gene expression. Biol Reprod 1993, (in press)
   Google Scholar
• Diamond Ml, Miner J N, Yoshinaga S K, Yamamoto K R. Transcription factor interactions: selectors of positive or negative regulation from a single DNA element. Science 1990; 249–52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landers J P, Spelsberg T C. Updates and new models for steroid hormone action. The Male Germ Cell: Spermatogonium to Fertilization. Ann NY Acad Sci, B Robaire, 1991; 26–55
   Google Scholar
• Rejman J, Landers J P, Goldberger A, McCormick D J, Gosse B, Spelsberg T C. Purification of a nuclear protein (receptor binding factor‐1) associated with the chromatin acceptor sites for the avian oviduct progesterone receptor. J Protein Chem 1991; 10: 651–67
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schuchard M, Rejman J J, McCormick D J, Gosse B, Ruesink T, Spelsberg T C. Characterization of a purified chromatin acceptor protein (Receptor Binding Factor‐1) for the avian oviduct progesterone receptor. Biochem J 1991; 30: 4535–42
   Google Scholar
• Ross P, Ruh T S. Binding of the estradiol receptor complex to calf uterine chromatin. Biochem 1984; 200: 133–42
   Google Scholar
• Spelsberg T C, Littlefield B A, Seelke R, et al. Role of specific chromosomal proteins and DNA sequences in the nuclear binding sites for steroid receptors. Rec Pro Norm Res 1983; 39: 463–517
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spelsberg T C, Horton M, Fink K, . A new model for steroid regulation of gene transcription using chromatin acceptor sites and regulatory genes and their products. Recent Advances in Steroid Hormone Action, V K Moudgil, et al. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1987; 59–83
   Google Scholar
• Rories C, Spelsberg T C. Ovarian steroid action on gene expression: mechanisms and models. Annu Rev Physiol 1989; 51: 653–81
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggs B L, Wahner H W, Dunn W L, Mazess R B, Offord K P, Melton L J, III. Differential changes in bone mineral density of the appendicular skeleton with aging: relationship to spinal osteoporosis. J Clin Invest 1981; 67: 328–35
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsay R. Overview of prevention strategies. Third International Symposium on Osteoporosis, C C Overgaard. Denmark, Copenhagen 1990; 945–7, Osteoporosis
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson T A, Polansky S M, Feinstein A R. Postmenopausal oestrogens protect against fractures of hip and distal radius. Lancet 1979; 2: 705–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss N S, Ure C L, Ballard J H, Williams A R, Daling J R. Decreased risk of fractures of the hip and lower forearm with postmenopausal use of estrogen. N Engl J Med 1980; 303: 1195–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ettinger B, Genant H K, Cann C E. Long‐term estrogen replacement therapy prevents bone loss and fractures. Ann Intern Med 1985; 102: 319–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Paassen H C, Poortman J, Borgart‐Creutzburg I HC, Thijssen J HH, Duursma S A. Oestrogen binding proteins in bone cell cytosol. Calcif Tissue Res 1978; 25: 249–54
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen T, Feldmart D. Distinction between alpha‐fetoprotein and intracellular estrogen receptors: evidence against the presence of estradiol receptors in rat bone. Endocrinology 1979; 102: 236–44
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksen E, Colvard D, Berg N, Graham M, Mann K, Spelsberg T C, Riggs B L. Evidence of estrogen receptors in normal human osteoblast‐like cells. Science 1988; 241: 84–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Komm B S, Terpening C, Benz D, Graeme K, Gallegos A, Korc M. Estrogen binding, receptor mRNA, and biologic response in osteoblast‐like osteosarcoma cells. Science 1988; 241: 81–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner C H. Do estrogens increase bone formation?. Bone 1991; 12: 305–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow J WM, Lean J M, Chambers T J. 17β‐Estradiol stimulates cancellous bone formation in female rats. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 3025–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner R T, Vandersteenhoven J J, Bell N H. The effects of ovariectomy and 17β‐estradiol on corticol bone histomorphometry in growing rats. J Bone Miner Res 1987; 2: 115–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaney R P. A unified concept of osteoporosis. Am J Med 1965; 39: 877–80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggs B L, Jowsey J, Goldsmith R S, Kelly P J, Hoffman D L, Arnaud C D. Short‐ and long‐term effects of oestrogen and synthetic anabolic hormone in postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Clin Invest 1972; 51: 1659–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivey J L, Baylink D J. Postmenopausal osteoporosis: proposed roles of defective coupling and estrogen deficiency. Metabolic Bone Disease Relationship Research 1981; 3: 3–8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ernst M, Schmid C H, Froesch E R. Enhanced osteoblast proliferation and collagen gene expression by estradiol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85: 2307–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst M, Heath J K, Rodan G A. Estradiol effects on proliferation, messenger ribonucleic acid for collagen and insulin‐like growth factor‐l, and parathyroid hormone‐stimulated adenylate cyclase activity in osteoblastic cells from calvariae and long bones. Endocrinology 1989; 125: 825–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray T K, Flynn T C, Gray K M, Nabell L M. 17β‐estradiol acts directly on the clonal osteoblastic cell line UMR106. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 6267–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watts C KW, Parker M G, King R JB. Stable transfection of the oestrogen receptor gene into a human osteosarcoma cell line. J Steroid Biochem 1989; 34: 483–90
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keeting P E, Scott R E, Colvard D S, Han I K, Spelsberg T C, Riggs B L. Lack of a direct effect of estrogen on proliferation and differentiation of normal human osteoblast‐like cells. J Bone Miner Res 1991; 6: 297–304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oursler M J, Osdoby P, Pyfferoen J, Riggs B L, Spelsberg T C. Avian osteoclasts as estrogen target cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991; 88: 6613–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oursler M J, Pederson L, Pyfferoen J, Osdoby P, Fitzpatrick L, Spelsberg T C. Estrogen modulation of avian osteoclast lysosomal gene expression. Endocrinology 1992; 132: 1373–80
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaes G. Cellular biology and biochemical mechanism of bone resorption. A review of recent developments on the formation, activation, and mode of action of osteoclasts. Clin Orthop 1988; 231: 239–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ransone L J, Verma I M. Nuclear proto‐oncogenes fos and jun. Annu Rev Cell Biol 1990; 6: 539–44
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McSheedy P MJ, Chambers T J. Osteoblastic cells mediate osteoclastic responsiveness to parathyroid hormone. Endocrinology 1986; 118: 824–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McSheedy P MJ, Chambers T J. Osteoblast‐like cells in the presence of parathyroid hormone release soluble factor that stimulates osteoclastic bone resorption. Endocrinology 1986; 119: 1654–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murrills R J, Stein L S, Fey C P, Dempster D W. The effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH‐related peptide on osteoclast resorption of bone slices in vitro: an analysis of pit size and the resorption focus. Endocrinology 1990; 127: 2648–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gowen M, Mundy G. Actions of recombinant interleukin 1, interleukin 2, and interferon‐gamma on bone resorption in vitro. J Immunol 1986; 136: 2478–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jilka R L. Are osteoblastic cells required for the control of osteoclast activity by parathyroid hormone. Bone Miner 1986; 1: 261–6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McSheedy P MJ, Chambers T J. 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates rat osteoblastic cells to release a soluble factor that increases osteoclastic bone resorption. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 425–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson B M, Mundy G R, Chambers T J. Tumor necrosis factors alpha and beta induce osteoblastic cells to stimulate osteoclastic bone resorption. J Immunol 1987; 138: 775–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfeilschifter J, Chenu C, Bird A, Mundy G R, Roodman G D. Interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor stimulate the formation of human osteoclast‐like cells in vitro. J Bone Miner Res 1989; 4: 113–18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujita T, Matsui T, Nakao Y, Shiozawa S, Imai Y. Cytokines and osteoporosis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1990; 587: 371–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishimi Y, Miyaura C, Jin C, et al. IL‐6 is produced by osteoblasts and induces bone resorption. J Immunol 1990; 145: 3297–306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akatsu T, Takahashi N, Udagawa N, et al. Role of prostaglandins in interleukin‐1‐induced bone resorption in mice in vitro. J Bone Miner Res 1991; 6: 183–90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenzo J A, Sousa S L, Fonseca J M, Hock J M, Medlock E S. Colony stimulating factors regulate the development of multinucleated osteoclasts from recently replicated cells in vitro. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 160–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corboz V A, Cecchini M G, Felix R, Fleisch H, van der Pluijm G, Lowik C WGM. Effect of macrophage colony‐stimulating factor on in vitro osteoclast generation and bone resorption. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 437–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabatini M, Boyce B, Aufdemorte T, Bonewald L, Mundy G R. Infusions of recombinant human interleukins 1a and 1b cause hypercalcemia in normal mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85: 5235–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawanto M, Yamamoto I, Iwato K, et al. Interleukin‐1β rather than lymphotoxin as the major bone resorbing activity in human multiple myeloma. Blood 1989; 73: 1646–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfeilschifter J, Seyedin S, Mundy G. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF‐beta) inhibits bone resorption in fetal rat long bones. Calc Tissue Int 1988; 42: A–34
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dieudonne S C, Foo P, Van Zoelen E JJ, Burger E H. Inhibiting and stimulating effects of TGF‐beta 1 on osteoclastic bone resorption in fetal mouse bone organ cultures. J Bone Miner Res 1991; 6: 479–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe K, Tanaka Y, Morimoto I, et al. lnterleukin‐4 as a potent inhibitor of bone resorption. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1990; 172: 1035–41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streiter R M, Phan S H, Showel H J, et al. Monokine‐induced neutrophil chemotactic factor gene expression in human fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 1989; 264: 10621–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girasole G, Sabagami Y, Hustmyer F, et al. 17‐β estradiol inhibits cytokine induced IL‐6 production by bone marrow stromal cells and osteoblasts. J Bone Miner Res 1990; 5: S–273
   Google Scholar
• Jilka R L, Hangoc G, Girasole G, et al. Increased osteoclast development after estrogen loss: mediation by Inter‐leukin‐6. Science 1992; 257: 88–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhary L R, Spelsberg T C, Riggs B L. Production of various cytokines by normal human osteoblast‐like cells in response to interleukin‐1β and tumor necrosis factor‐α: lack of regulation by 17β‐estradiol. Endocrinology 1992; 130: 2528–34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rickard D, Russell G, Gowen M. Oestradiol inhibits the release of tumor necrosis but not interleukin 6 from adult human osteoblasts in vitro. Osteoporosis Int 1992; 2: 94–102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robey P G, Young M F, Flanders K C, et al. Osteoblasts synthesize and respond to transforming growth factor‐type beta (TGF‐β) in vitro. J Cell Biol 1987; 105: 457–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massague J. Receptors for the TGF‐β family. Cell 1992; 69: 1067–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noda M, Camilliere J J. In vivo stimulation of bone formation by transforming growth factor‐β. Endocrinology 1989; 124: 2991–4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcelli C, Yates A J, Mundy G R. In vivo effects of human recombinant transforming growth factor beta on bone turnover in normal mice. J Bone Miner Res 1990; 5: 1087–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieudonne S C, Foo P, van Zoelen E JJ, Burger E H. Inhibiting and stimulating effects of TGF‐β, on osteoclastic bone resorption in fetal mouse bone organ cultures. J Bone Miner Res 1991; 6: 479–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oursler M J, Cortese M, Keeting P, et al. Modulation of transforming growth factor‐beta production in normal human osteoblast‐like cells by 17 beta‐estradiol and parathyroid hormone. Endocrinology] 1991; 129: 3313–20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher J C. Wilkinson R. The effect of ethinyl oestradiol on calcium and phosphorus metabolism of postmenopausal women with primary hyperparathyroidism. Clin Sci 1973; 45: 785–802
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcus R, Madvig P, Crim M, Pont A, Kosek J. Conjugated estrogens in the treatment of postmenopausal women with hyperparathyroidism. Ann Intern Med 1984; 100: 633–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner U, Gustafson G T. A revised role for cyclic AMP in prostaglandin‐induced bone resorption. Med Biol 1980; 58: 18–24
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Felix R, Fleisch H, Elford P R. Bone‐resorbing cytokines enhance release of macrophage colony‐stimulating activity by the osteoblastic cell MC3T3‐E1. Calcif Tissue Int 1989; 44: 356–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrett I R, Mundy G R. Relationship between interleukin‐1 and prostaglandins in resorbing neonatal calvaria. J Bone Miner Res 1989; 4: 789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mundy G R, Bonewald L F. Effects of immune cell products on bone. Macrophage‐derived Cell Regulatory Factors, C Sorg. Karger, Basel 1989; 38–53
   Google Scholar
• Ishiml Y, Miyaura C, Jin C H, et al. IL‐6 is produced by osteoblasts and induces bone resorption. J Immunol 1990; 145: 3297–303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norrdin R W, Jee W SS, High W B. The role of prostaglandins in bone in vivo. Prostaglandins Leuko Essent Fatty Acids 1990; 41: 139–49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller K, Gallagher A C, Chambers T J. Osteoclast resorption‐stimulating activity is associated with the osteoblast cell surface and/or the extracellular matrix. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991; 181: 67–73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers T J, Fuller K. Bone cells predispose bone surfaces to resorption by exposure of mineral to osteoclastic contact. J Cell Sci 1985; 76: 155–64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sakamoto S, Sakamoto M. Biochemical and immuno‐histochemical studies on collagenase in resorbing bone in tissue culture. A novel hypothesis for the mechanism of bone resorption. J Peridont Res 1982; 17: 523–30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton J A, Lingelbach S R, Partridge N, Martin T J. Stimulation of plasminogen activator in osteoblast‐like cells by bone‐resorbing hormones. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1984; 122: 230–1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath J K, Atkinson S J, Meikle N IC, Reynolds J J. Mouse osteoblasts synthesize collagenase in response to bone resorbing agents. Biochem Biophys Acta 1984; 802: 151–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton J A, Lingelbach S, Partridge N, Martin T J. Regulation of plasminogen activator production by bone‐resorbing hormones in normal and malignant osteoblasts. Endocrinology 1985; 116: 2186–95
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron R, Neff L, Van P T, Nefussi J ‐R, Vignery A. Kinetic and cytochemical identification of osteoclast precursors and their differentiation into multinucleated osteoclasts. Am J Pathol 1986; 122: 363–78
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickson R B, Bates S E, McManaway M E, Lippman M E. Characterization of estrogen responsive transforming activity in human breast cancer cell lines. Cancer Res 1986; 46: 1707–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knabbe C, Lippman M E, Wakefield L M, et al. Evidence that transforming growth factor‐beta is a hormonally regulated negative growth factor in human breast cancer cells. Cell 1987; 48: 417–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chenu C, Pfeilschifter J, Mundy G, Roodman G. Transforming growth factor beta inhibits formation of osteo‐clast‐like cells in long‐term human marrow cultures. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988; 85: 5683–91
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tashjian A H, Jr, Voelkel E F, Lazzaro M, et al. α and β human transforming growth factors stimulate prostaglandin production and bone resorption in cultured mouse calvaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1985; 82: 4535–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oreffo R, Bonewald L, Garrett I, Seyedin S, Mundy G. Transforming growth factors beta I and II inhibit osteoclast activity. J Bone Miner Res 1988; 3: S–178
   Google Scholar
• Bonewald L F, Mundy G R. Role of transforming growth factor‐beta in bone remodeling. Clin Orthop 1990; 250: 261–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcelli C, Yates A J, Mundy G R. In vivo effects of human recombinant transforming growth factor β of bone turnover in normal mice. J Bone Miner Res 1990; 5: 1087–96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oreffo R OC, Bonewald L, Kukita A, et al. Inhibitory effects of the bone‐derived growth factors osteoinductive factor and transforming growth factor‐β on isolated osteoclasts. Endocrinology 1990; 126: 3069–75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madtes D K, Raines E W, Sakariassen K S, et al. Induction of transforming growth factor‐α in activated human alveolar macrophages. Cell 1988; 53: 285–93
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rappolee D A, Mark D, Banda M J, Werb Z. Wound macrophages express TGF‐α and other growth factors in vivo: analysis by mRNA phenotyping. Science 1988; 241: 708–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst M, Froesch E R. Growth hormone dependent stimulation of osteoblast‐like cells in serum‐free cultures via local synthesis of insulin‐like growth factor I. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1988; 151: 142–7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarthy T L, Centrella M, Canalis E. Regulatory effects of insulin‐like growth factors I and II on bone collagen synthesis in rat calvarial cultures. Endocrinology 1989; 124: 301–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farley J, Masada T, Wergedal J, Bayling D. Human skeletal growth factor: characterization of the mitogenic effect on bone cells in vitro. Biochem 1982; 21: 3508–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauschka P V, Mavrakos A E, Lafrati M D, Doleman S E, Klagsbrun M. Growth factors in bone matrix. Isolation of multiple types of affinity chromatography on heparin‐Sepharose. J Biol Chem 1986; 261: 12665–72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linkhart T A, Jennings J C, Mohan S, Wakely G K, Baylink D. Characterization of mitogenic activities extracted from bovine bone matrix. Bone 1986; 7: 479–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seyedin S M, Thompson A Y, Bentz H, et al. Cartilage‐inducing factor‐A. Apparent identity to transforming growth factor‐beta. J Biol Chem 1986; 261: 5693–702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan S, Jennings J C, Linkhart T A, Wergedal J E, Baylink D. Primary structure of human skeletal growth factor (SGF): homology with IGF‐II. J Bone Miner Res 1988; 3: S–218
   Google Scholar
• Mohan S, Bautista C M, Herring S J, Linkhart T A, Bayling D J. Development of valid methods to measure insulin‐like growth factors‐l and‐II in bone cell‐conditioned medium. Endocrinology 1990; 126: 2534–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar