904
Views
27
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and the Future of Ocular Toxoplasmosis

&
Pages 138-147 | Received 15 Apr 2013, Accepted 04 Jul 2013, Published online: 16 Oct 2013

References

  • Bosch-Driessen LEH, Berendschot T, Ongkosuwito JV, et al. Ocular toxoplasmosis: clinical features and prognosis of 154 patients. Ophthalmology 2002;109:869–878
  • Holland GN. LX Edward Jackson memorial lecture: ocular toxoplasmosis—a global reassessment, part 1: epidemiology and course of disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136:973–988
  • Kirby T. Calls for more detailed studies on toxoplasmosis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12:912–913
  • Vaudaux JD, Muccioli C, James ER, et al. Identification of an atypical strain of Toxoplasma gondii as the cause of a waterborne outbreak of toxoplasmosis in Santa Isabel do Ivai, Brazil. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1226–1233
  • Vasconcelos-Santos DV. Ocular manifestations of systemic disease: toxoplasmosis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2012;23:543–550
  • Wakefield D, Cunningham ET, Pavesio C, et al. Controversies in ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19:2–9
  • Vasconcelos-Santos DV, Dodds EM, Orefice F. Review for disease of the year: differential diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19:171–179
  • Garweg JG, de Groot-Mijnes JDF, Montoya JG. Diagnostic approach to ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19:255–261
  • Petersen E, Kijlstra A, Stanford M Epidemiology of ocular toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2012;20:68–75
  • Silveira C, Ferreira R, Muccioli C, et al. Toxoplamosis transmitted to a newborn from the mother infected 20 years earlier. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136:370–371
  • Tenter AM, Heckeroth AR, Weiss LM. Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans. Int J Parasitol. 2000;30:1217–1258
  • Popkin BM. Nutrition in transition: the changing global nutrition challenge. Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr. 2001;10:S13–S18
  • Kijlstra A, Meerburg BG, Mul MF. Animal-friendly production systems may cause re-emergence of Toxoplasma gondii. Njas-Wageningen J Life Sci. 2004;52:119–132
  • Kijlstra A, Jongert E. Control of the risk of human toxoplasmosis transmitted by meat. Int J Parasitol. 2008;38:1359–1370
  • Meerburg BG, Kijlstra A. Changing climate-changing pathogens: Toxoplasma gondii in North-Western Europe. Parasitol Res. 2009;105:17–24
  • Peixoto-Rangel AL, Miller EN, Castellucci L, et al. Candidate gene analysis of ocular toxoplasmosis in Brazil: evidence for a role for toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). Mem Instit Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104:1187–1190
  • Dutra MS, Bela SR, Peixoto-Rangel AL, et al. Association of a NOD2 gene polymorphism and T-helper 17 cells with presumed ocular toxoplasmosis. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:152–163
  • Su CL, Khan A, Zhou P, et al. Globally diverse Toxoplasma gondii isolates comprise six major clades originating from a small number of distinct ancestral lineages. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109:5844–5849
  • Demar M, Ajzenberg D, Maubon D, et al. Fatal outbreak of human toxoplasmosis along the Maroni River: epidemiological, clinical, and parasitological aspects. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:E88–E95
  • Cook AJC, Gilbert RE, Buffolano W, et al. Sources of toxoplasma infection in pregnant women: European multicentre case-control study. Br Med J. 2000;321:142–147
  • Bahia-Oliveira LMG, Jones JL, Azevedo-Silva J, et al. Highly endemic, waterborne toxoplasmosis in north Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9:55–62
  • Frenkel JK, Ruiz A, Chinchilla M Soil survival of Toxoplasma oocysts in Kansas and Costa Rica. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1975;24:439–443
  • Dumetre A, Le Bras C, Baffet M, et al. Effects of ozone and ultraviolet radiation treatments on the infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Vet Parasitol. 2008;153:209–213
  • Hijnen WAM, Brouwer-Hanzens AJ, Charles KJ, et al. Transport of MS2 phage, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia intestinalis in a gravel and a sandy soil. Environ Sci Technol. 2005;39:7860–7868
  • Karanis P, Aldeyarbi HM, Mirhashemi ME, et al. The impact of the waterborne transmission of Toxoplasma gondii and analysis efforts for water detection: an overview and update. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2013;20:86–99
  • Karanis P, Kourenti C, Smith H Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: a worldwide review of outbreaks and lessons learnt. J Water Health 2007;5:1–38
  • Frenkel JK, Pfefferkorn ER, Smith DD, et al. Prospective vaccine prepared from a new mutant of Toxoplasma gondii for use in cats. Am J Vet Res. 1991;52:759–763
  • Mateus-Pinilla NE, Dubey JP, Choromanski L, et al. A field trial of the effectiveness of a feline Toxoplasma gondii vaccine in reducing T. gondii exposure for swine. J Parasitol. 1999;85:855–860
  • Lass A, Pietkiewicz H, Szostakowska B, et al. The first detection of DNA in environmental fruits and vegetables samples. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;31:1101–1108
  • Alvarado-Esquivel C, Estrada-Martinez S, Liesenfeld O Toxoplasma gondii infection in workers occupationally exposed to unwashed raw fruits and vegetables: a case control seroprevalence study. Parasites Vectors. 2011;4:235
  • Shapiro K, Miller M, Mazet J, et al. Effect of estuarine wetland degradation on transport of Toxoplasma gondii surrogates from land to sea. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2010;76:6821–6828
  • Shapiro K, Miller M, Mazet J Temporal association between land-based runoff events and California sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis) protozoal mortalities. J Wildlife Dis. 2012;48:394–404
  • Robertson LJ. The potential for marine bivalve shellfish to act as transmission vehicles for outbreaks of protozoan infections in humans: a review. Int J Food Microbiol. 2007;120:201–216
  • Chiang TY, Hsieh HH, Kuo MC, et al. Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection among healthy blood donors in Taiwan. Plos One 2012;7:e48139
  • Pappas G, Roussos N, Falagas ME. Toxoplasmosis snapshots: global status of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence and implications for pregnancy and congenital toxoplasmosis. Int J Parasitol. 2009;39:1385–1394
  • Hill D, Coss C, Dubey JP, et al. Identification of a sporozoite-specific antigen from Toxoplasma gondii. J Parasitol. 2011;97:328–337
  • Boyer K, Hill D, Mui E, et al. Unrecognized ingestion of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts leads to congenital toxoplasmosis and causes epidemics in North America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1081–1089
  • Fan CK, Lee LW, Liao CW, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection: relationship between seroprevalence and risk factors among primary schoolchildren in the capital areas of Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Principe, West Africa. Parasite Vectors. 2012;5:141
  • Havelaar AH, Haagsma JA, Mangen MJJ, et al. Disease burden of foodborne pathogens in the Netherlands, 2009. Int J Food Microbiol. 2012;156:231–238
  • Gilbert RE, Stanford MR. Is ocular toxoplasmosis caused by prenatal or postnatal infection?. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84:224–226
  • Dubey JP, Lago EG, Gennari SM, et al. Toxoplasmosis in humans and animals in Brazil: high prevalence, high burden of disease, and epidemiology. Parasitology. 2012;139:1375–1424
  • Hofhuis A, Van Pelt W, Van Duynhoven Y, et al. Decreased prevalence and age-specific risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibodies in The Netherlands between 1995/1996 and 2006/2007. Epidemiol Infect. 2011;139:530–538
  • Kortbeek LM, Hofhuis A, Nijhuis CDM, et al. Congenital toxoplasmosis and DALYs in the Netherlands. Mem Instit Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104:370–373
  • Lachenmaier SM, Deli MA, Meissner M, et al. Intracellular transport of Toxoplasma gondii through the blood–brain barrier. J Neuroimmunol. 2011;232:119–130
  • Furtado JM, Bharadwaj AS, Chipps TJ, et al. Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites cross retinal endothelium assisted by intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in vitro. Immunol Cell Biol. 2012;90:912–915
  • Furtado JM, Ashander LM, Mohs K, et al. Toxoplasma gondii migration within and infection of human retina. Plos One. 2013;8:e54358
  • Silveira C, Vallochi AL, da Silva UR, et al. Toxoplasma gondii in the peripheral blood of patients with acute and chronic toxoplasmosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2011;95:396–400
  • Dubey JP. The history of Toxoplasma gondii: the first 100 years. J Eukaryotic Microbiol. 2008;55:467–475
  • Lambert H, Dellacasa-Lindberg I, Barragan A. Migratory responses of leukocytes infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Microbes Infect. 2011;13:96–102
  • Lambert H, Hitziger N, Dellacasa I, et al. Induction of dendritic cell migration upon Toxoplasma gondii infection potentiates parasite dissemination. Cell Microbiol. 2006;8:1611–1623
  • Lambert H, Vutova PP, Adams WC, et al. The Toxoplasma gondii-shuttling function of dendritic cells is linked to the parasite genotype. Infect Immun. 2009;77:1679–1688
  • Fuks JM, Arrighi RBG, Weidner JM, et al. GABAergic signaling is linked to a hypermigratory phenotype in dendritic cells infected by Toxoplasma gondii. Plos Pathogens. 2012;8:e1003051
  • Courret N, Darche S, Sonigo P, et al. CD11c- and CD11b-expressing mouse leukocytes transport single Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites to the brain. Blood. 2006;107:309–316
  • Furtado JM, Bharadwaj AS, Ashander LM, et al. Migration of Toxoplasma gondii-infected dendritic cells across human retinal vascular endothelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53:6856–6862
  • Yang PZ, Das PK, Kijlstra A. Localization and characterization of immunocompetent cells in the human retina. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2000;8:149–157
  • Chen L, Yang PZ, Kijlstra A. Distribution, markers, and functions of retinal microglia. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2002;10:27–39
  • Weidner JM, Kanatani S, Hernandez-Castaneda MA, et al. Rapid cytoskeleton remodelling in dendritic cells following invasion by Toxoplasma gondii coincides with the onset of a hypermigratory phenotype. Cell Microbiol. 2013;in press
  • Flegr J. How and why Toxoplasma makes us crazy. Trends Parasitol. 2013;29:156–163
  • Duarte J, Pacheco MTT, Villaverde AB, et al. Near-infrared Raman spectroscopy to detect anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibody in blood sera of domestic cats: quantitative analysis based on partial least-squares multivariate statistics. J Biomed Optics. 2010;15:047002
  • Araujo-Andrade C, Pichardo-Molina JL, Barbosa-Sabanero G, et al. Detection of the presence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in human colostrum by Raman spectroscopy and principal component analysis. J Biomed Optics. 2007;12:034006
  • Erckens RJ, Jongsma FHM, Wicksted JP, et al. Raman spectroscopy in ophthalmology: from experimental tool to applications in vivo. Lasers Med Sci. 2001;16:236–252
  • Elshout M, Erckens RJ, Webers CA, et al. Detection of Raman spectra in ocular drugs for potential in vivo application of Raman spectroscopy. J Ocul Pharmacol Therapeut. 2011;27:445–451
  • Du LP, Kijlstra A, Yang PZ. Immune response genes in uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2009;17:249–256
  • Hou S, Kijlstra A, Yang P. The genetics of Behcet's disease in a Chinese population. Front Med. 2012;6:354–359
  • Nussenblatt RB, Mittal KK, Fuhrman S, et al. Lymphocyte proliferative responses of patients with ocular toxoplasmosis to parasite and retinal antigens. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;107:632–641
  • Meenken C, Rothova A, Dewaal LP, et al. HLA typing in congenital toxoplasmosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1995;79:494–497
  • Holland GN, Cornell PJ, Park MS, et al. An association between acute retinal necrosis syndrome and HLA-DQW7 and phenotype-BW62,DR4. Am J Ophthalmol. 1989;108:370–374
  • Subauste CS, Ajzenberg D, Kijlstra A. Review of the series "disease of the year 2011: toxoplasmosis" pathophysiology of toxoplasmosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19:297–306
  • Henriquez FL, Woods S, Cong H, et al. Immunogenetics of Toxoplasma gondii informs vaccine design. Trends Parasitol. 2010;26:550–555
  • Suzuki Y. Host resistance in the brain against Toxoplasma gondii. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:S58–S65
  • Jamieson SE, de Roubaix LA, Cortina-Borja M, et al. Genetic and epigenetic factors at COL2A1 and ABCA4 influence clinical outcome in congenital toxoplasmosis. Plos One. 2008;3:e2285
  • Jamieson SE, Cordell H, Petersen E, et al. Host genetic and epigenetic factors in toxoplasmosis. Mem Instit Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104:162–169
  • Cordeiro CA, Moreira PR, Costa GC, et al. Interleukin-1 gene polymorphisms and toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Mol Vision. 2008;14:1845–1849
  • Cordeiro CA, Moreira PR, Bessa TF, et al. Interleukin-6 gene polymorphism (-174 G/C) is associated with toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Acta Ophthalmol. 2013;91:e311–314
  • Cordeiro CA, Moreira PR, Andrade MS, et al. Interleukin-10 gene polymorphism (-1082G/A) is associated with toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49:1979–1982
  • Neves ED, Curi ALL, de Albuquerque MC, et al. Genetic polymorphism for IFN gamma+874T/A in patients with acute toxoplasmosis. Rev Soc Brasileira Med Trop. 2012;45:757–760
  • Jamieson SE, Peixoto-Rangel AL, Hargrave AC, et al. Evidence for associations between the purinergic receptor P2X(7) (P2RX7) and toxoplasmosis. Genes Immun. 2010;11:374–383
  • Miller CM, Boulter NR, Fuller SJ, et al. The role of the P2X(7) receptor in infectious diseases. Plos Pathogens. 2011;7:e1002212
  • Witola WH, Mui E, Hargrave A, et al. NALP1 Influences susceptibility to human congenital toxoplasmosis, proinflammatory cytokine response, and fate of Toxoplasma gondii-infected monocytic cells. Infect Immun. 2011;79:756–766
  • Bessa TF, Cordeiro CA, Goncalves RM, et al. Increased serum levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor-2 (sTNFR2) in patients with active toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Brazilian J Infect Dis. 2012;16:540–544
  • Jay NL, Gillies M. Proteomic analysis of ophthalmic disease. Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2012;40:755–763
  • Seeber F, Boothroyd JC. Escherichia coli beta-galactosidase as an in vitro and in vivo reporter enzyme and stable transfection marker in the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Gene. 1996;169:39–45
  • McMenamin PG. Optimal methods for preparation and immunostaining of iris, ciliary body, and choroidal wholemounts. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2000;41:3043–3048
  • Escoffier P, Jeanny JC, Marinach-Patrice C, et al. Toxoplasma gondii: flat-mounting of retina as a new tool for the observation of ocular infection in mice. Exp Parasitol. 2010;126:259–262
  • McMenamin PG, Dutton GN, Hay J, et al. The ultrastructural pathology of congenital murine toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis, 1: the localization and morphology of Toxoplasma cysts in the retina. Exp Eye Res. 1986;43:529–543
  • Garweg JG, de Kozak Y, Goldenberg B, et al. Anti-retinal autoantibodies in experimental ocular and systemic toxoplasmosis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2010;248:573–584
  • Holland GN. LX Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture: ocular toxoplasmosis—a global reassessment, part II: disease manifestations and management. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;137:1–17
  • Pifer R, Yarovinsky F Innate responses to Toxoplasma gondii in mice and humans. Trends Parasitol. 2011;27:388–393
  • Lahmar I, Guinard M, Sauer A, et al. Murine neonatal infection provides an efficient model for congenital ocular toxoplasmosis. Exp Parasitol. 2010;124:190–196
  • Wallon M, Peyron F, Cornu C, et al. Congenital Toxoplasma infection: monthly prenatal screening decreases transmission rate and improves clinical outcome at age 3 years. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1223–1231
  • Mimura KK, Tedesco RC, Calabrese KS, et al. The involvement of anti-inflammatory protein, annexin A1, in ocular toxoplasmosis. Mol Vis. 2012;18:1583–1593
  • Hitziger N, Dellacasa I, Albiger B, et al. Dissemination of Toxoplasma gondii to immunoprivileged organs and role of Toll/interleukin-1 receptor signalling for host resistance assessed by in vivo bioluminescence imaging. Cell Microbiol. 2005;7:837–848
  • Pissuwan D, Valenzuela SM, Miller CM, et al. A golden bullet? Selective targeting of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites using anti body-functionalized gold nanorods. Nano Lett. 2007;7:3808–3812
  • Cense B, Gao WH, Brown JM, et al. Retinal imaging with polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography and adaptive optics. Opt Express. 2009;17:21634–21651
  • Desmettre T, Labalette P, Fortier B, et al. Laser photocoagulation around the foci of Toxoplasma retinochoroiditis: a descriptive statistical analysis of 35 patients with long-term follow-up. Ophthalmologica. 1996;210:90–94
  • Orefice JL, Costa RA, Scott IU, et al. Spectral optical coherence tomography findings in patients with ocular toxoplasmosis and active satellite lesions (MINAS Report 1). Acta Ophthalmol. 2013;91:e41–e47
  • Robert-Gangneux F, Darde ML. Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2012;25:264–296
  • Grigg ME, Ganatra J, Boothroyd JC, et al. Unusual abundance of atypical strains associated with human ocular toxoplasmosis. J Infect Dis. 2001;184:633–639
  • Fentress SJ, Steinfeldt T, Howard JC, et al. The arginine-rich N-terminal domain of ROP18 is necessary for vacuole targeting and virulence of Toxoplasma gondii. Cell Microbiol. 2012;14:1921–1933
  • Smith JR, Franc DT, Carter NS, et al. Susceptibility of retinal vascular endothelium to infection with Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2004;45:1157–1161
  • Dubremetz JF, Lebrun M. Virulence factors of Toxoplasma gondii. Microbes Infect. 2012;14:1403–1410
  • Kong JT, Grigg ME, Uyetake L, et al. Serotyping of Toxoplasma gondii infections in humans using synthetic peptides. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:1484–1495
  • McLeod R, Boyer KM, Lee D, et al. Prematurity and severity are associated with Toxoplasma gondii alleles (NCCCTS, 1981–2009). Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:1595–1605

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.