Sex differences in schizophrenia

References

• Addington J, Addington D. Early intervention for psychosis: The calgary early psychosis treatment and prevention program. CPA Bulletin 2001; 33: 11–16
   Google Scholar
• J. Addington, van Mastrigt, S., & Addington, D. (2003). Patterns of premorbid functioning in first-episode psychosis: Initial presentation. Schizophrenia Research, 62 (1–2), 23–30.
   Google Scholar
• Agartz I, Sääf J, Wahlund LO, Wetterberg L. Quantitative estimations of cerebrospinal fluid spaces and brain regions in healthy controls using computer-assisted tissue classification of magnetic resonance images: Telation to age and sex. Magnetic Resonance Imaging 1992; 10: 217–226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhondzadeh S, Nejatisafa AA, Amini H, Mohammadi MR, Larijani B, Kashani L, , Kamalipour A, et al. Adjunctive estrogen treatment in women with chronic schizophrenia: A double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled trial. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 2003; 27: 1007–1012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aleman A, Kahn RS, Selten JP. Sex differences in the risk of schizophrenia: Evidence from meta-analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry 2003; 60: 565–571
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen LS, Gorski RA. Sexual dimorphism of the human anterior commissure [abstract]. Anatomical Record 1986; 214: 3A
   Google Scholar
• Angermayer MC, Kühn L, Goldstein JM. Gender and the course of schizophrenia: Differences in treated outcomes. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1990; 16: 293–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold AP. Mouse models for evaluating sex chromosome effects that cause sex differences in non-gonadal tissues. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 2009; 21: 377–386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold AP, van Nas A, Lusis AJ. Systems biology asks new questions about sex differences. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 2009; 20: 471–476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergemann N, Mundt C, Parzer P, Pakrasi M, Eckstein-Mannsperger U, Haisch S, , Resch F, et al. Estrogen as an adjuvant therapy to antipsychotics does not prevent relapse in women suffering from schizophrenia: Results of a placebo-controlled double-blind study. Schizophrenia Research 2005; 74: 125–134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergemann N, Parzer P, Nagl I, Salbach B, Runnebaum B, Mundt C, Resch F. Acute psychiatric admission and menstrual cycle phase in women with schizophrenia. Archives of Women's Mental Health 2002; 5: 119–126
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bigos KL, Pollack BG, Coley KC, Miller DD, Marder SR, Aravagiri M, , Bies RR, et al. Sex, race and smoking impact olanzapine exposure. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology & New Drugs 2008; 48: 157–165
   Google Scholar
• Bogerts B, Ashtari M, Degreef G, Alvir JM, Bilder RM, Lieberman JA. Reduced temporal limbic structure volumes on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 1990; 35: 1–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castle DJ, Abel KM, Takei N, Murray RM. Gender differences in schizophrenia: Hormonal effect or subtypes?. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1995; 21: 1–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castle DJ, Wessley S, Murray RM. Sex and schizophrenia: Effects of diagnostic stringency, and associations with premorbid variables. British Journal of Psychiatry 1993; 162: 658–664
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chua WL, Izquierdo de Santiago A, Kulkarni J, Mortimer A. Estrogen for schizophrenia (Review). Cochrane Collaboration Library 2009; 3: 1–38
   Google Scholar
• Dewing P, Chiang CW, Sinchak K, Sim H, Fernagut PO, Kelly S, , Vilain E, et al. Direct regulation of adult brain function by the male-specific factor SRY. Current Biology 2006; 16: 415–420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DoH. Women's mental health: Into the mainstream. Strategic development of mental health care for women. Department of Health, London 2002
   Google Scholar
• Donahue JE, Stopa EG, Chorsky RL, King JC, Schipper HM, Tobet SA. Cells containing immunoreactive estrogen receptor-alpha in the human basal forebrain. Brain Research 2000; 856: 142–151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drake RJ, Addington, J., Viswanathan, A., Lewis, S.W., & Abel, K.M. (in submission). How do age and gender interact as determinants of the incidence and course of non-affective psychosis? Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
   Google Scholar
• Endo M, Daiguji M, Asano Y, Yamashita I, Takahashi S. Periodic psychosis recurring in association with menstrual cycle. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1978; 39: 456–466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enger C, Weatherby L, Reynolds RF, Glasser DB, Walker AM. Serious cardiovascular events and mortality among patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 2004; 192: 19–27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernández-Guasti A, Kruijver FPM, Fodor M, Swaab DF. Sex differences in the distribution of androgen receptors in the human hypothalamus. Journal of Comparative Neurology 2000; 425: 422–435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filipek PA, Richelme C, Kennedy DN, Caviness VS, Jr. The young adult human brain: An MRI-based morphometric analysis. Cerebral Cortex 1994; 4: 344–360
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flaum M, Swayze VW, II, O’Leary DS, Yuh WT, Ehrhardt JC, Arndt SV, Andreasen NC. Effects of diagnosis, laterality, and gender on brain morphology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1995; 152: 704–714
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flor-Henry P. The influence of gender on psychopathology. Cerebral basis of psychopathology, P Flor-Henry. Wright-PSG, Littleton, MA 1983; 97–116
   Google Scholar
• Giedd JN, Snell JW, Lange N, Rajapakse JC, Casey BJ, Kozuch PL, , Rapoport JL, et al. Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging of human brain development: Ages 4–18. Cerebral Cortex 1996; 6: 551–560
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goff DC, Sullivan LM, McEvoy JP, Meyer JM, Nasrallah HA, Daumit GL, , Lieberman JA, et al. A comparison of ten-year cardiac risk estimates in schizophrenia patients from the CATIE study and matched controls. Schizophrenia Research 2005; 80: 45–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman PS, Crawford HT, Stokes LP, Galkin TW, Rosvold HE. Sex-dependent behavioral effects of cerebral cortical lesions in the developing rhesus monkey. Science 1974; 186: 540–542
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein JM. The impact of gender on understanding the epidemiology of schizophrenia: A critical review. Gender and psychopathology, MV Seeman. American Psychiatric Association Press, Washington, DC 1995; 159–199
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein JM. Sex differences in schizophrenia: Epidemiology, genetics, and the brain. International Review of Psychiatry 1997; 9: 399–408
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein JM. Sex, hormones and affective arousal circuitry dysfunction in schizophrenia. Hormones & Behaviour 2006; 50: 612–622
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein JM, Link BG. Gender and the expression of schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1988; 22: 141–155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein JM, Seidman LJ, Horton NJ, Makris N, Kennedy DN, Caviness VS, Jr, , Tsuang MT, et al. Normal sexual dimorphism of the adult human brain assessed by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging. Cerebral Cortex 2001; 11: 490–497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein JM, Seidman LJ, O’Brien LM, Horton NJ, Kennedy DN, Makris N, , Tsuang MT, et al. Impact of normal sexual dimorphisms on sex differences in structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenia assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Archives of General Psychiatry 2002a; 59: 154–164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• J.M. Goldstein, Cohen, L.S., Horton, N.J., Lee, H., Andersen, S., Tohen, M., … , Tollefson, G. (2002b). Sex differences in clinical response to olanzapine compared with haloperidol. Psychiatry Research, 110, 27–37.
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein JM, Walder D. Sex differences in schizophrenia: The case for developmental origins and etiological implications. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2006
   Google Scholar
• Good KP, Kopala LC, Martzke JS, Fluker M, Seeman MV, Parish B. Hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women with schizophrenia: Preliminary findings. Schizophrenia Research 1999; 12: 131
   Google Scholar
• Gorski RA. Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System. Principles of neural science, ER Kandel, JH Schwartz, TM Jessell. McGraw-Hill, New York 2000; 1131–1146
   Google Scholar
• Grimm VE, Frieder B. Differential vulnerability of male and female rats to the timing of various perinatal insults. International Journal of Neuroscience 1985; 27: 155–164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grossman LS, Harrow M, Rosen C, Faull R, Strauss GP. Sex differences in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders: A 20-year longitudinal study of psychosis and recovery. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2008; 49: 523–529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RE, Cowell PE, Latshaw A, Turetsky BI, Grossman RI, Arnold SE, , Gur RC, et al. Reduced dorsal and orbital prefrontal gray matter volumes in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 2000a; 57: 761–768
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RE, Turetsky BI, Cowell PE, Finkelman C, Maany V, Grossman RI, , Gur RC, et al. Temporolimbic volume reductions in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 2000b; 57: 769–775
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur RC, Turetsky BI, Matsui M, Yan M, Bilker W, Hughett P, Gur RE. Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: Correlations with cognitive performance. Journal of Neuroscience 1999; 19: 4065–4072
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• H. Häfner, Loffler, W., Maurer, K., Hambrecht, M., & van der Heiden, W. (1999). Depression, negative symptoms, social stagnation and social decline in the early course of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandanavica, 100(2), 105–118.
   Google Scholar
• Häfner H, Maurer K, Loffler W, Riecher-Rössler A. The influence of age and sex on the onset and early course of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1993; 162: 80–86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hambrecht M, Maurer K, Häfner H, Sartorius N. Transnational stability of gender differences in schizophrenia. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 1992; 242: 6–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handa RJ, Burgess LH, Kerr JE, O’Keefe JA. Gonadal steroid hormone receptors and sex differences in the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Hormones & Behaviour 1994a; 28: 464–476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handa RJ, Condon TP, Whitmoyer DI, Gorski RA. Gonadotropin secretion following intraventricular norepinephrine infusion into neonatally androgenized female rats. Neuroendocrinology 1986a; 43: 269–272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handa RJ, Hines M, Schoonmaker JN, Shryne JE, Gorski RA. Evidence that serotonin is involved in the sexually dimorphic development of the preoptic area in the rat brain. Brain Research 1986b; 395: 278–282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handa RJ, Nunley KM, Lorens SA, Louie JP, McGivern RF, Bollnow MR. Androgen regulation of adrenocorticotropin and corticosterone secretion in the male rat following novelty and foot shock stressors. Physiology & Behavior 1994b; 55: 117–124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harasty JKL, Double KL, Halliday GM, Kril JJ, McRitchie DA. Language-associated cortical regions are proportionally larger in the female brain. Archives of Neurology 1997; 54: 171–176
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison G, Hopper K, Craig T, Laska E, Dube KC, Ganev K, , Wiersma D, et al. Recovery from psychotic illness: A 15- and 25-year international follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 178: 506–517
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herman RA, Zehr J, Wallen K. Prenatal androgen blockade accelerates pubertal development in male rhesus monkeys. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2006; 31: 118–130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirayasu Y, McCarley RW, Salisbury DF, Tanaka S, Kwon JS, Frumin M, , Shenton ME, et al. Planum temporale and Heschl gyrus volume reduction in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 2000; 57: 692–699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoff AL, Kremen WS, Wieneke MH, Jauriello J, Blankfeld HM, Faustman WO, , Nordahl TE, et al. Association of estrogen levels with neuropsychological performance in women with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2001; 158: 1134–1139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard CH, Fiedosewicz H, Patel C, Klegon DA, Bayog R, Berman I. Treatment response and gender in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Schizophrenia Research 2001; 49: 232
   Google Scholar
• Huber TJ, Borsutzky M, Schneider U, Emrich HM. Psychotic disorders and gonadal function: Evidence supporting the estrogen hypothesis. Acta Psychologica Scandinavica 2004; 109: 269–274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jablensky A. Schizophrenia: The epidemiological horizon. Schizophrenia, SR Hirsch, DR Weinberger. Blackwell Science, Oxford 2003; 203–231
   Google Scholar
• Jablensky A, Cole SW. Is the earlier age at onset of schizophrenia in males a confounded finding? Results from a cross-cultural investigation. British Journal of Psychiatry 1997; 170: 234–240
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jablensky A, McGrath J, Herrman H, Castle D, Gureje O, Evans A, , Harvey C, et al. Psychotic disorders in urban areas: An overview of the study on low prevalence disorders. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2000; 34: 221–236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jablensky A. Sartorius, N., Ernberg, E., Anker, M., Korten, A., Cooper, J.E., … , Bertelsen, A. 1992, Schizophrenia: Manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization ten country study. Psychological Medicine Monograph, Suppl 20, 1–97
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs B, Schall M, Scheibel AB. A quantitative dendritic analysis of Wernicke's area in humans. II. Gender, hemispheric, and environmental factors. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1993; 327: 97–111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaye JA, DeCarli C, Luxenberg JS, Rapoport SI. The significance of age-related enlargement of the cerebral ventricles in healthy men and women measured by quantitative computed x-ray tomography. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1992; 40: 225–231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawata M. Roles of steroid hormones and their receptors in structural organization in the nervous system. Neuroscience Research 1995; 24: 1–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraepelin E, (1893). Psychiatrie: Ein Lehrbuch fur Studierende und Ärtze (4th ed.) [Psychiatry: A Textbook for Students and Physicians]. Leipzig: JA Barth
   Google Scholar
• Kretschmer E. Physique and character. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York 1925
   Google Scholar
• Kulkarni J, de Castella A, Smith D, Taffe J, Keks N, Copolov D. A clinical trial of the effects of estrogen in acutely psychotic women. Schizophrenia Research 1996; 20: 247–252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulkarni J, Riedel A, de Castella AR, Fitzgerald PB, Rolfe TJ, Taffe J, Burger H. A clinical trial of adjunctive oestrogen treatment in women with schizophrenia. Archives of Women's Mental Health 2002; 5: 99–104
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lauriello J, Hoff A, Wieneke MH, Blankeld H, Faustman WO, Rosenbloom M, , Pfefferbaum A, et al. Similar extent of brain dysmorphology in severely ill women and men with schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1997; 154: 819–825
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leung A, Chue P. Sex differences in schizophrenia, a review of the literature. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica Supplementum 2000; 40: 3–38
   Google Scholar
• Lewis S, Tarrier N, Haddock G, Bentall R, Kinderman P, Kingdon D, , Dunn G, et al. Randomised controlled trial of cognitive-behavioural therapy in early schizophrenia: Acute-phase outcomes. British Journal of Psychiatry 2002; 43: S91–97
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman JA, Safferman AZ, Pollack S, Szymanski S, Johns C, Howard A, , Kane JM, et al. Clinical effects of clozapine in chronic schizophrenia: response to treatment and predictors of outcome. American Journal of Psychiatry 1994; 151: 1744–1752
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louza MR, Marques AP, Elkis H, Bassitt D, Diegoli M, Gattaz WF. Conjugated estrogens as adjuvant therapy in the treatment of acute schizophrenia: A double-blind study. Schizophrenia Research 2004; 66: 97–100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLusky NJ, Clark AS, Naftolin F, Goldman-Rakic PS. Estrogen formation in the mammalian brain: Possible role of aromatase in sexual differentiation of the hippocampus and neocortex. Steroids 1987; 50: 459–474
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mahé V, Dumaine A. Oestrogen withdrawal associated psychoses. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2001; 104: 323–331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCreadie RG, Wiles D, Grant S, Crockett GT, Mahmood Z, Livingston MG, , Todd NA, the Scottish Schizophrenia Research Group, et al. The Scottish first episode schizophrenia study. VII. Two-year follow-up. Scottish Schizophrenia Research Group. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1989; 80: 597–602
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McEwen BS. Gonadal steroid influences on brain development and sexual differentiation. In R.O. Greep (Ed.). Reproductive Physiology. 1983; IV, 27. International Review of Physiology (pp. 99–145). Baltimore: University Park Press
   Google Scholar
• McGrath J, Saha S, Chant D, Welham J. Schizophrenia: A concise overview of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Epidemiologic Reviews 2008; 30: 67–76
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moldin SO. Gender and schizophrenia: An overview. Gender and its effects on psychopathology, E Frank. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC 2000; 169–186
   Google Scholar
• Morgan VA, Castle DJ, Jablensky AV. Do women express and experience psychosis differently from men? Epidemiological evidence from the Australian National Study of Low Prevalence (Psychotic) Disorders. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2008; 42: 74–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy DGM, DeCarli C, McIntosh AR, Daly E, Mentis MJ, Pietrini P, , Rapoport SI, et al. Sex differences in human brain morphometry and metabolism: An in vivo quantitative magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography study on the effect of aging. Archives of General Psychiatry 1996; 53: 585–594
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nopoulos P, Flaum M, Andreasen NC. Sex differences in brain morphology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 1997; 154: 1648–1654
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nopoulos P, Flaum M, O’Leary D, Andreasen NC. Sexual dimorphism in the human brain: Evaluation of tissue volume, tissue composition and surface anatomy using magnetic resonance imaging. Psychiatry Research 2000; 98: 1–13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostlund H, Keller E, Hurd YL. Estrogen receptor gene expression in relation to neuropsychiatric disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2003; 1007: 54–63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park J-J, Baum MJ, Paredes RG, Tobet SA. Neurogenesis and cell migration into the sexually dimorphic preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus of the fetal ferret. Journal of Neurobiology 1996; 30: 315–328
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Passe TJ, Rajagopalan P, Tupler LA, Byrum CE, MacFall JR, Krishnan KRR. Age and sex effects on brain morphology. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 1997; 21: 1231–1237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilgrim C, Hutchison JB. Developmental regulation of sex differences in the brain: Can the role of gonadal steroids be redefined?. Neuroscience 1994; 60: 843–855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinals DA, Malhotra AK, Missar CD, Pickar D, Breier A. Lack of gender differences in neuroleptic response in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 1996; 22: 215–222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rabinowicz T, Dean DE, Petetot JMC, de Courten-Myers GM. Gender differences in the human cerebral cortex: More neurons in males; more processes in females. Journal of Child Neurology 1999; 14: 98–107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajkumar S, Thara R. Factors affecting relapse in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 1989; 2: 403–409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rantakallio P, von Wendt L. Trauma to the nervous system and its sequelae in a one-year birth cohort followed up to the age of 14 years. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 1985; 39: 353–356
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rector NA, Seeman MV. Auditory hallucinations in women and men. Schizophrenia Research 1992; 7: 233–236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riecher-Rössler A. Oestrogen effects in schizophrenia and their potential therapeutic implications – Review. Archives of Women's Mental Health 2002; 5: 111–118
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Robinson D, Woerner MG, Alvir JM, Bilder R, Goldman R, Geisler. S, , Lieberman JA, et al. Predictors of relapse following response from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 1999; 56: 241–247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy MA, Maziade M, Labbé A, Mérette C. Male gender is associated with deficit schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research 2001; 47: 141–147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saha S, Chant D, Welham J, McGrath J. A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. Public Library of Science Medicine 2005; 2: e141
   Google Scholar
• Salokangas RKR. Structure of schizophrenic symptomatology and its changes over time: Prospective factor analytical study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1997a; 95: 32–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salokangas RKR. Living situation, social network and outcome in schizophrenia: A five-year prospective follow-up study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandanavica 1997b; 96: 459–468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandhu S, Cook P, Diamond MC. Rat cerebral cortical estrogen receptors: Male-female, right-left. Experimental Neurology 1986; 92(1)186–196
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sartorius N, Jablensky A, Korten A, Ernberg G, Anker M, Cooper JE, Day R. Early manifestations and first-contact incidence of schizophrenia in different cultures. A preliminary report on the initial evaluation phase of the WHO Collaborative Study on determinants of outcome of severe mental disorders. Psychological Medicine 1986; 16: 909–928
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlaepfer TE, Harris GJ, Tien AY, Peng L, Lee S, Pearlson GD. Structural differences in the cerebral cortex of healthy female and male subjects: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 1995; 61: 129–135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz KM, Molenda-Figueira HA, Sisk CL. Back to the future: The organizational-activational hypothesis adapted to puberty and adolescence. Hormones & Behavior 2009; 55: 597–604
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeman MV. Gender differences in schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 1982; 27: 107–111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selten JP, Veen ND, Hoek HW, Laan W, Schols D, van der Tweel I, , Kahn RS, et al. Early course of schizophrenia in a representative Dutch incidence cohort. Schizophrenia Research 2007; 97: 79–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith S. Effects of antipsychotics on sexual and endocrine function in women: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2003; 23: S27–32
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith S, O’Keane V, Murray RM. Sexual dysfunction in patients taking conventional antipsychotic medication. British Journal of Psychiatry 2002; 181: 49–55
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Susser E, Wanderling J. Epidemiology of nonaffective acute remitting psychosis: Sex and sociocultural setting. Archives of General Psychiatry 1994; 51: 294–301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szeszko PR, Strous RD, Goldman RS, Ashtari M, Knuth KH, Lieberman JA, Bilder RM. Neuropsychological correlates of hippocampal volumes in patients experiencing a first episode of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 2002; 159: 217–226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szymanski S, Lieberman J, Pollack S, Kane JM, Safferman A, Munne R, , Kronig M, et al. Gender differences in neuroleptic nonresponsive clozapine-treated schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry 1996; 39: 249–254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taherianfard M, Shariaty M. Evaluation of serum steroid hormones in schizophrenic patients. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 2004; 58: 3–9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tang Y-L, Mao P, Li F-M, Li W, Chen Q, Jiang F, , Mitchell PB, et al. Gender, age, smoking behaviour and plasma clozapine concentrations in 193 Chinese inpatients with schizophrenia. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2007; 64: 49–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thara R, Rajkumar S. Gender differences in schizophrenia. Results of a follow-up study from India. Schizophrenia Research 1992; 7: 65–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornton J, Zehr JL, Loose MD. Effects of prenatal androgens on rhesus monkeys: A model system to explore the organizational hypothesis in primates. Hormones & Behavior 2009; 55: 633–645
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tien AY. Distributions of hallucinations in the population. Psychological Medicine 1991; 26: 203–208
   Google Scholar
• Tobet SA. Genes controlling hypothalamic development and sexual differentiation. European Journal of Neuroscience 2002; 16: 373–376
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobet SA, Basham ME, Baum MJ. Estrogen receptor immunoreactive neurons in the fetal ferret forebrain. Brain Research: Developmental Brain Research 1993; 72: 167–180
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tobet SA, Henderson RG, Whiting PJ, Sieghart W. Special relationship of g-aminobutyric acid to the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus during embryonic development. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1999; 405: 88–98
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toran-Allerand CD. The estrogen/neurotrophin connection during neural development: is co-localization of estrogen receptors with the neurotrophins and their receptors biologically revelant?. Developmental Neuroscience 1996; 18: 36–48
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vazquez-Barquero JL, Cuesta Nunez MJ, Herrera Castanedo S, Diez Manrique JF, Pardo G, Dunn G. Sociodemographic and clinical variables as predictors of the diagnostic characteristics of first episodes of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1996; 94: 149–155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade J, Arnold AP. Functional testicular tissue does not masculinize development of the zebra finch song system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1996; 93: 5264–5268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witelson SF, Glezer II, Kigar DL. Women have greater density of neurons in posterior temporal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 1995; 15: 3418–3428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar