Afro-Caribbeans and Schizophrenia: The Ethnic Vulnerability Hypothesis Re-Examined

References

• Bebbington P. E., Hurry J., Tennant C. Psychiatric disorder in selected groups in Camberwell. Social Psychiatry 1981; 1(6)43–51
   Google Scholar
• Black Health Workers and Patients Group (BHWPG). Psychiatry and the corporate state. Race and Class 1983; 25(2)49–64
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Book J. A. A genetic and neuropsychiatric investigation of a North Swedish population. Acta Genetica ey Statistica Medico 1953; 4: 1–100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cabot M. R. The incidence and prevalence of schizophrenia in the Republic of Ireland. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 1990; 2(5)210–215
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Task Force ON Mental Health Issues Affecting Immigrants and Refugees. Review of the Literature on Migrant Mental Health. Ministry of Supply and Services, Ottawa 1988a
   Google Scholar
• Canadian Task Force ON Mental Health Issues. After The Door Has Opened. Ministry of Supply and Services, Ottawa 1988b
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter L, Brockington I. F. The study of mental illness in Asians, West Indians and Africans living in Manchester. British Journal of Psychiatry 1980; 137: 201–205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carstairs G. M., Kapur R. L. The Great Universe of Kota: a study of stress, change and mental disorder in an Indian village. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA 1976
   Google Scholar
• Cochrane R. The Social Creation of Mental Illness. Longman, London 1984
   Google Scholar
• Cochrane R, Bal S. S. Migration and schizophrenia: an examination of five hypotheses. Social Psychiatry 1987; 2(2)181–191
   Google Scholar
• Cochrane R, Bal S. S. Mental hospital admission rates of immigrants to England: a comparison of 1971 and 1981. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 1989; 24: 2–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocetti G. M., Lemkau P. V., Kulcar Z., Kesic B. Selected aspects of the epidemiology of psychoses in Croatia, Yugoslavia: III. the cluster sample and the results of the pilot survey. American Journal of Epidemiology 1971; 94: 126–134
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean G., Walsh D., Downing H., Shelley E. First admissions of native born and immigrants to psychiatric hospitals in South East England. British Journal of Psychiatry 1981; 139: 506–512
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dohrenwend B. P., Dohrenwend B. S. Social Status and Psychological Disorder: a causal inquiry. Wiley-Interscience, London 1964
   Google Scholar
• Eaton W. W. Epidemiology of schizophrenia. Epidemiological Reviews 1985; 7: 105–121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaton J. W., Weil R. J. Culture and Mental Disorders. Free Press, New York 1955
   Google Scholar
• Fenton C. Racism and culture: mental health and ethnic minorities. Racial Discrimination in the Health Services, J Cox, S. Bostock. Keele University, Keele 1989
   Google Scholar
• Fernando S. Racism as a cause of depression. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 1984; 30: 41–49
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fernando S. Race and Culture in Psychiatry. Tavistock/Routledge, London 1988
   Google Scholar
• Glover G. Psychiatric illness among British Afro-Caribbeans (letter). British Medical Journal 1988; 29(6)1538–1539
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg D., Huxley P. Mental Illness in the Community: the pathway to psychiatric care. Tavistock, London 1980
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg E. M., Morrison S. L. Schizophrenia and social class. British Journal of Psychiatry 1963; 10(9)785–802
   Google Scholar
• Gordon E. B. Mentally ill West Indian immigrants. British Journal of Psychiatry 1965; 11(1)877–887
   Google Scholar
• Harrison G. Search for the causes of schizophrenia: the role of migrant studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 1990; 1(6)663–671
   Google Scholar
• Harrison G., Holton A., Neilson D., Boot D., Cooper J. Severe mental disorder in Afro-Caribbean patients: some social, demographic and service (actors. Psychological Medicine 1989; 19: 683–696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison G., Owens D., Holton A., Neilson D., Boot D. A prospective study of severe mental disorder in Afro-Caribbean patients. Psychological Medicine 1988; 18: 643–657
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helgason T. Epidemiology of mental disorder in Iceland. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1964, suppl: 173
   Google Scholar
• Hemsi L. K. Psychiatric morbidity of West Indian immigrants. Social Psychiatry 1967; 2: 95–100
   Google Scholar
• Hickling F. W. Psychiatric hospital admission rates in Jamaica, 1971 and 1988. British Journal of Psychiatry 1991; 159: 817–821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hitch P. J., Clegg P. Models of referral of overseas immigrant and native born first admissions to psychiatric hospital. Social Science and Medicine 1980; 14A: 369–374
   Google Scholar
• Ineichen B. Afro-Caribbeans and the incidence of schizophrenia: a review. New Community 1989; 15(3)335–341
   Google Scholar
• Ineichen B. The mental health of Asians in Britain: little disease or underreporting?. British Medical Journal 1990; 300: 1669–1670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ineichen B., Harrison G., Morgan H. G. Psychiatric hospital admissions in Bristol. I. Geographic and ethnic factors. British Journal of Psychiatry 1984; 14(5)600–604
   Google Scholar
• Jablensky A. Epidemiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia: the major issues, P Bebbington, P. McGuffin. Heinemann, Oxford
   Google Scholar
• Jayasundera M. G. Mental health surveys in Ceylon. Mental Health Research in Asia and the Pacific, W Cudill, T. Y. Lin. East West Press, Honolulu 1969
   Google Scholar
• Jayasuriya L., Sang D., Fielding A. Ethnicity, Immigration and Mental Illness: a critical review of Australian research. Bureau of Immigration Research, Canberra 1992
   Google Scholar
• Jones I. H., Horne D. J. Psychiatric disorders among Aborigines of the Australian Western Desert: further data and discussion. Social Science and Medicine 1973; 7: 219–228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinman A. Depression, somatization and the new cross-cultural psychiatry. Social Science and Medicine 1977; 11: 3–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinman A. Clinical relevance of anthropological and cross-cultural research: concepts and strategies. American Journal of Psychiatry 1978; 13(4)427–431
   Google Scholar
• Kramer M. Issues in the development of statistical and epidemiologic data for mental health services research. Psychological Medicine 1976; 6: 185–215
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leff J. Psychiatry Around the Globe: a transcultural view. Marcel Dekker, New York 1981
   Google Scholar
• Leff J. Psychiatry Around the Globe2nd edn. Gaskell, London 1988
   Google Scholar
• Lin T. Y. A study of the incidence of mental disorder in Chinese and other cultures. Psychiatry 1953; 1(6)313–336
   Google Scholar
• Lin T. Y., Rin H., Yeh E. K., Hsu C. C., Chu H. M. Mental disorders in Taiwan fifteen years later; a preliminary report. Mental Health Research in Asia and the Pacific, W Caudill, T. Y. Lin. East West Press, Honolulu 1969
   Google Scholar
• Littlewood R. From categories to contexts: a decade of the ‘new cross-cultural psychiatry’. British Journal of Psychiatry 1990; 15(6)308–327
   Google Scholar
• Littlewood R. Against pathology: the new psychiatry and its critics. British Journal of Psychiatry 1991; 15(9)696–702
   Google Scholar
• Littlewood R, Lipsedge M. Some social and phenomenological characteristics of psychotic immigrants. Psychological Medicine 1981a; 1(1)289–302
   Google Scholar
• Littlewood R, Lipsedge M. Acute psychotic reactions in Caribbean born patients. Psychological Medicine 1981b; 1(1)303–318
   Google Scholar
• Lntlewood R, Lipsedge M. Aliens and Alienists: ethnic minorities and psychiatry. Penguin, Harmonds-worth 1982
   Google Scholar
• Littlewood R, Lipsedge M. Psychiatric illness among British Afro-Caribbeans. British Medical Journal 1988; 29(6)950–951
   Google Scholar
• Loring M, Powell B. Gender, race and DSM III: A study of the objectivity of psychiatric diagnostic behaviour. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour 1988; 29: 1–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masi A. T. Potential uses and limitations of hospital data in epidemiologic research. American Journal of Public Health 1965; 5(5)658–667
   Google Scholar
• McGovern D, Cope R. First psychiatric admission rates of first and second generation Afro-Caribbeans. Social Psychiatry 1987a; 2(2)139–149
   Google Scholar
• McGovern D, Cope R. The compulsory detention of males of different ethnic groups, with special reference to offender patients. British Journal of Psychiatry 1987b; 150: 505–512
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercer K. Racism and transcultural psychiatry. The Power of Psychiatry, P Miller, N. Rose. Polity Press, London 1986
   Google Scholar
• Moodley P, Perkins R. E. Routes to psychiatric inpatient care in an inner London Borough. Social Psychiatry Epidemiology 1987; 2(6)47–51
   Google Scholar
• Mukherjee S., Shukla S., Woodle J., Rosen A. M., Olarte S. Misdiagnosis of schizophrenia in bipolar patients: a multi-ethnic comparison. American Journal of Psychiatry 1983; 140: 1571–1572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy H. B. M. Current trends in transcultural psychiatry. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 1973; 6(6)711–716
   Google Scholar
• Murphy H. B. M. Transcultural psychiatry should begin at home. Psychological Medicine 1977; 7: 369–371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy H. B. M. Comparative Psychiatry: the international and intercultural distribution of mental illness. Springer-Verlag, New York 1982
   Google Scholar
• Murphy H. B.M., Lemieux M. Quelques considerations sur la taux élévé de schizophrenic dans un type de communauté canadienne-française. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 1967; 12(special issue)S17–S81
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murphy H. B.M., Taumoepeau B. M. Traditionalism and mental health in the South pacific: a re-examination of an old hypothesis. Psychological Medicine 1980; 10: 471–482
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Odegaard O. Emigration and insanity: a study of mental disease among the Norwegian-born population in Minnesota. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica (Suppl.) 1932; 4: 1–26
   Google Scholar
• Rack P. Race, Culture and Mental Disorder. Tavistock, London 1982
   Google Scholar
• Rin H, Lin T. Y. Mental illness among Formosan aborigines as compared with the Chinese in Taiwan. Journal of Mental Science 1962; 10(8)34–146
   Google Scholar
• Roy C., Choudhuri A., Irvtne D. The prevalence of mental disorders among Saskatchewan Indians. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 1970; 1: 383–392
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rwegellera G. G. C. Psychiatric morbidity among West Africans and West Indians living in London. Psychological Medicine 1977; 7: 317–329
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rwegellera G. G. C. Differential use of psychiatric services by West Indians, West Africans and English in London. British Journal of Psychiatry 1980; 137: 428–432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sashidharan S. P. The politics and ideology of transcultural psychiatry. Transcultural Psychiatry, J. L. Cox. Croom Helm, London 1986
   Google Scholar
• Sashidharan S. P., Francis E. Ethnicity, epidemiology and schizophrenia. Race and Health in Contemporary Britain, W. Ahmed. Open University Press) (in press, Milton Keynes 1992
   Google Scholar
• Sethi B. B., Gupta S. C., Kumar R., Kumari P. A psychiatric survey of 500 rural families. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 1972; 1(4)183–196
   Google Scholar
• Siegel J. S. Estimates of coverage of the population by sex, race and age in the 1970 census. Demography 1974; 11: 1–23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sikanartey T, Eaton W. W. The prevalence of schizophrenia in the Labadi district in Ghana. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1984; 6(9)156–161
   Google Scholar
• Smyth M. G., Sashidharan S. P. The unreliability of census data in the estimation of ethnic minority populations. (submitted for publication). 1992
   Google Scholar
• Tamtam D. High-risk groups: the homeless and ethnic minorities. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 1991; 4: 295–303
   Google Scholar
• Tewfik G. I., Okasha A. Psychosis and immigration. Postgraduate Medical Journal 1965; 4(1)603–612
   Google Scholar
• Thomas A, Sillen S. Racism and Psychiatry. Bruner/Mazel, New York 1972
   Google Scholar
• Torrey E. F. Schizophrenia and Civilization. Jason Aronson, London 1980
   Google Scholar
• Torrey E. F. Prevalence studies in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1987; 150: 598–608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaisanen E. Psychiatric disorders in Finland. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1975; 5: 1
   Google Scholar
• von Korff M., Nestadt G., Romanoski A. The prevalence of treated and untreated DSM III schizophrenia: results of a two-stage community survey. Journal of Mental Diseases cited by Eaton. 1983
   Google Scholar
• Walsh D., O'Hare A., Blake B., Halpenny J. V., O'Brien P. F. The treated prevalence of mental illness in the Republic of Ireland: the three-county case register study. Psychological Medicine 1980; 10: 465–475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warner R. Recovery from Schizophrenia: psychiatry and political economy. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1985
   Google Scholar
• Wennburg J. Which rate is right?. New England Journal of Medicine 1986; 31(4)310–311
   Google Scholar