The Interaction of Inhaled Toxicants with Respiratory Tract Clearance Mechanisms

References

• Lucas A. M., Douglas L. C. Principles underlying ciliary activity in the respiratory tract. II. A comparison of nasal clearance in man, monkey and other mammals. Arch. Otolaryngol. 1934; 20: 518
   Google Scholar
• Morgan K. T., Jiang X.-Z., Patterson D. L., Gross E. A. The nasal mucociliary apparatus: correlation of structure and function in the rat. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1984; 130: 275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoneda K. Mucous blanket of rat bronchus. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1976; 114: 837
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hulbert W. C., Forster B. B., Laird W., Pihl C. E., Walker D. C. An improved method for fixation of the respiratory epithelial surface with the mucous and surfactant layers. Lab. Invest. 1982; 47: 354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gil J., Weibel E. R. Extracellular lining of bronchioles after perfusion-fixation of rat lungs for electron microscopy. Anat. Rec. 1971; 169: 185
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gil J. Comparative morphology and ultrastructure of the airways. Mechanisms in Respiratory Toxicology, H. Witschi, P. Net-Tesheim. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 1982; Vol. 1: 4
   Google Scholar
• Jeffery P. K. Morphologic features of airway surface epithelial cells and glands. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1983; 128: S14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilbura K. H. A hypothesis for pulmonary clearance and its implications. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1968; 98: 449
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iravani J., Melville G. N. Mucociliary function in the respiratory tract as influenced by physicochemical factors. Pharmacol. Ther. 1976; 2: 471
   Google Scholar
• Luchtel D. Extracellular lining layer of pulmonary airways. Mechanism and Control of Ciliary Movement, C. Brokaw, P. Verdugo. Alan R. Liss, New York 1982; 77
   Google Scholar
• Sturgess J. M. The mucous lining of major bronchi in the rabbit lung. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1977; 115: 819
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sturgess J. M. Mucociliary clearance and mucus secretion in the lung. Toxicology of Inhaled Materials, H. P. Witschi, J. D. Brain. Springer-Verlag, New York 1985; 319
   Google Scholar
• Bhaskar K., O'Sullivan D., Seltzer J., Rossing T., Drazen J., Reid L. Bronchial mucus aspirates from healthy volunteers (smokers and non-smokers) and from patients with tracheostomy. Exp. Lung Res. 1985; 9: 289
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlstedt I., Sheehan J. K. Macromolecular properties and polymeric structure of mucus glycoproteins. CIBA Foundation Symposium. Elsevier, Amsterdam 1984; Vol. 109: 157
   Google Scholar
• Verdugo P., Tarn P. Y., Butler J. Conformational structure of respiratory mucus studied by laser correlation spectroscopy. Bio-rheology 1983; 20: 223
   Google Scholar
• Silberberg A., Meyer F. A. Structure and function of mucus. Mucus in Health and Disease II, E. N. Chantler, J. B. Elder, M. Elstein. Plenum Press, New York 1982; 53
   Google Scholar
• Litt M. Row behaviour of mucus. Ann. Otol. 1970; 80: 330
   Google Scholar
• Satir P., Dirksen E. R. Function-structure correlations in cilia from mammalian respiratory tract. The Respiratory System, Section S, Vol. I, Handbook of Physiology. American Physiological Society, Bethesda, MD 1985; 473
   Google Scholar
• Fulford G. R., Blake J. R. Mucociliary transport in the lung. J. Theor. Biol. 1986; 121: 381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rensch H., Von Seefeld H., Gebhardt K. F., Renzow D., Sell P. J. Stop and go particle transport in the peripheral airways. Respiration 1983; 44: 346
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sleigh M. A., Blake J. R., Liron N. The propulsion of mucus by cilia. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1988; 137: 726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey M. R., Fry F. A., James A. C. Long-term retention of particles in the human respiratory tract. J. Aerosol Sci. 1985; 16: 295
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Voilmuth T. A., Naumann B. D., Driscoll K. E. Measurement of particle clearance from the alveolar region of the rabbit respiratory tract. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1986; 7: 256
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albert R. E., Lippmann M., Peterson H. T., Jr., Sanborn K., Bohning D. E. Bronchial deposition and clearance of aerosols. Arch. Intern. Med. 1973; 131: 115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whaley S. L., Wolff R. K., Muggenburg B. A., Snipes M. B. Mucociliary clearance and particle retention in the maxillary and ethmoid turbinate regions of beagle dogs. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1986; 19: 569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gore D. J., Patrick G. A quantitative study of the penetration of insoluble particles into the tissue of the conducting airways. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1982; 26: 149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson M. S., Brain S. D. Uptake of iron oxide aerosols by mouse airway epithelium. Lab Invest. 1979; 40: 450
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radford E. P., Martell E. A. Polonium-210: lead 210 ratios as an index of residence times of insoluble particles from cigarette smoke in bronchial epithelium. Inhaled Particles and Vapours IV, W. H. Walton. Pergamon Press, Oxford 1977; 567, Part 2
   Google Scholar
• Sorokin S. P., Brain J. D. Pathways of clearance in mouse lungs exposed to iron oxide aerosols. Anat. Rec. 1975; 181: 581
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cohen B. S., Harley N. H., Schlesinger R. B., Lippmann M. Nonuniform particle deposition on tracheobronchial airways: implication for lung dosimetry. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1988; 32: 1045, (Suppl. 1)
   Google Scholar
• Henshaw D. L., Fews A. P. The microdistribution of alpha emitting particles in the human lung. Lung Modelling for Inhalation of Radioactive Materials, H. Smith, G. Gerber. Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg 1984; 199
   Google Scholar
• Sawyer R. T. The significance of local resident pulmonary alveolar macrophage proliferation to population renewal. J. Leukocyte Biol. 1986; 39: 77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warheit D. B., Hill L. H., George G., Brody A. R. Time course of chemotactic factor generation and the corresponding macrophage response to asbestos inhalation. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1986; 134: 128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller K., Calverley A., Kagan E. Evidence of a quartz-induced chemotactic factor for guinea pig alveolar macrophages. Environ. Res. 1980; 22: 31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dauber J. H., Holian A., Rosemiller M. E., Daniele R. P. Separation of bronchoalveolar cells from the guinea pig on continuous gradients of Percoll: morphology and cytochemical properties of fractionated lung. J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 1983; 33: 157
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holian A., Dauber J. H., Diamond M. S., Daniele R. P. Separation of bronchoalveolar cells from the guinea pig on continuous gradients of Percoll: functional properties of fractionated lung macrophages. J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 1983; 33: 378
   Google Scholar
• Lehnert B. E., Valdez Y. E., Holland L. M. Pulmonary macrophages: alveolar and interstitial populations. Exp. Lung Res. 1985; 9: 177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden D. H., Adamson I. Y. R. The pulmonary interstitial cell as immediate precursor of the alveolar macrophages. Am. J. Pathol. 1973; 68: 521
   Google Scholar
• Adamson I. Y. R., Bowden D. A. Dose response of the pulmonary macrophagic system to various particulates and its relationship to transepithelial passage of free particles. Exp. Lung Res. 1981; 2: 165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brain J. D., Gehr P., Kavet R. I. Airway macrophages: the importance of the fixation method. Am. Rev. Resp, Dis. 1984; 129: 823
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brundelet J. P. Experimental study of the dust clearance mechanism of the lungs. I. Histological study in rats of the intrapulmonary bronchial route of elimination. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 1965; 175: 1, (Suppl.)
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz L. W., Christman C. A. Alveolar macrophage migration. Influence of lung lining material and acute insult. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1979; 120: 429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corry D., Kulkarni P., Lipscomb M. F. The migration of bronchoalveolar macrophages into hilar lymph nodes. Am. J. Pathol. 1984; 115: 321
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmsen A. G., Muggenburg B. A., Snipes M. D., Bice D. E. The role of macrophages in particle translocation from lungs to lymph nodes. Science 1985; 230: 1277
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macklin C. C. Pulmonary sumps, dust accumulation, alveolar fluid and lymph vessels. Acta Anat. 1955; 23: 1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bowden D. H., Adamson I. Y. R. Pathways of cellular efflux and particulate clearance after carbon instillation to the lung. J. Pathol. 1984; 143: 117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brody A. R., Hill L. H., Adkins B., Jr., O'Connor R. W. Chrysotile asbestos inhalation in rats: deposition pattern and reaction of alveolar epithelium and pulmonary macrophages. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1981; 123: 670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leak L. V. Lymphatic removal of fluids and particles in the mammalian lung. Environ. Health Perspect. 1980; 35: 55
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Raabe O. G. Deposition and clearance of inhaled aerosols. Mechanisms in Respiratory Toxicology, H. Witschi, P. Nettesheim. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 1982; Vol. 1: 27
   Google Scholar
• Holt P. F. Transport of inhaled dust to extrapulmonary sites. J. Pathol. 1981; 133: 123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee K. P., Barras C. E., Griffith F. D., Waritz R. S. Pulmonary response and transmigration of organic fibers by inhalation exposures. Am. J. Pathol. 1981; 102: 314
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeFevre M. E., Green F. H. Y., Joel D. D., Laqueur W. Frequency of black pigment in livers and spleens of coal workers. Correlations with pulmonary pathology and occupational information. Hum. Pathol. 1982; 13: 1121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercer T. T. On the role of particle size in the dissolution of lung burdens. Health Phys. 1967; 13: 1211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow P. E. The alveolar clearance of aerosols. Arch. Intern. Med. 1973; 131: 101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanapilly G. M. Alveolar microenvironment and its relationship to the retention and transport into blood of aerosols deposited in the alveoli. Health Phys. 1977; 32: 89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundborg M., Edland A., Lind B., Camner P. Dissolution of metals by human and rabbit alveolar macrophages. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1985; 42: 642
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Casarett L. J. The vital sacs: alveolar clearance mechanisms in inhalation toxicology. Essays in Toxicology, W. Hayes. Academic Press, New York 1972; Vol. 3: 1
   Google Scholar
• Morrow P. E. Clearance kinetics of inhaled particles. Respiratory Defense Mechanisms, Pari II. Marcel Dekker, New York 1977; 491
   Google Scholar
• Cuddihy R. G., Yeh H. C. Respiratory tract clearance of particles and substances dissociated from particles. Inhalation Toxicology: The Design and Interpretation of Inhalation Studies and Their Use in Risk Assessment. Springer-Verlag, New York 1988; 169
   Google Scholar
• Naumann B. D., Schlesinger R. B. Assessment of early alveolar particle clearance and macrophage function following or acute inhalation of sulfuric acid mist. Exp. Lung Res. 1986; 11: 13
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehnert B. E., Morrow P. E. Association of59iron oxide with alveolar macrophages during alveolar clearance. Exp. Lung Res. 1985; 9: 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massé R. Etude cytologique comparee de l'influence du plutonium et de la silica inhales sur le comportement du macrophage alveolaire. Inhaled Particles III, W. H. Walton. Unwin Bros., SurreyUK 1971; Vol. 1: 247
   Google Scholar
• Ferin J., Feldstein M. L. Pulmonary clearance and hilar lymph node content in rats after particle exposure. Environ. Res. 1978; 16: 342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehnert B. E., Valdez Y. E., Bomalaski S. H. Analyses of particles in the lung free cell, tracheobronchial lymph nodal, and pleural space compartments following this deposition in the lung as related to lung clearance mechanisms. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1988; 32: 125, (Suppl. 1)
   Google Scholar
• Stanley P., MacWilliam L., Greenstone M., Mackay I., Cole P. Efficacy of a saccharin test for screening to detect abnormal mucociliary clearance. Br. J. Dis. Chest 1984; 78: 62
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Andersen I., Camner P., Jensen P. L., Philipson K., Proctor D. F. Nasal clearance in monozygotic twins. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1974; 110: 301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toomes H., Vogt-Moykopf I., Heller W. D., Ostertag H. Measurement of mucociliary clearance in smokers and non-smokers using a bronchoscopic video-technical method. Lung 1981; 159: 27
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Landa J. F., Hirsch J. A., Lebeaux M. I. Effects of topical and general anesthetic agents on tracheal mucous velocity of sheep. J. Appl. Physiol. 1975; 38: 946
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sackner M. A., Rosen M. J., Wanner A. Estimation of tracheal mucus velocity by bronchofiberoscopy. J. Appl. Physiol. 1973; 34: 495
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Man S. F. P., Lee T. K., Gibney R. T. N., Logus J. W., Noujaim A. A. Canine tracheal mucus transport of particulate pollutants: comparison of radiolabeled corn pollen, ragweed pollen, asbestos, silica, and talc to Dowex® anion exchange particles. Arch. Environ. Health 1980; 35: 283
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeates D. B., Pitt B. R., Spektor D. M., Karron G. A., Albert R. E. Coordination of mucociliary transport in human trachea and intrapulmonary airways. J. Appl. Physiol. 1981; 51: 1057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Baan S., Veerman A. J. P., Heidendahl G. A. K., Hollander W., Feenstra L. Primary ciliary dyskinesia and nasal mucociliary clearance. Respiration 1987; 52: 69
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Foster W. M., Langenback E., Bergofsky E. H. Lung mucociliary function in man: interdependence of bronchial and tracheal mucus transport velocities with lung clearance in bronchial asthma and healthy subjects. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1982; 26: 227
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Puchelle E., Aug F., Zahm J. M., Bertrand A. Comparison of nasal and bronchial mucociliary clearance in young non-smokers. Clin. Sci. 1982; 62: 13
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Patrick G., Stirling C. Measurement of mucociliary clearance from the trachea of conscious and anesthetized rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 1977; 42: 451
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leikauf G., Yeates D. B., Wales K. A., Albert R. E., Lippmann M. Effects of sulfuric acid aerosol on respiratory mechanics and mucociliary particle clearance in healthy non-smoking adults. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 1981; 42: 273
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holma B. Lung clearance of mono- and di-dispersed aerosols determined by profile scanning and whole body counting. Acta Med. Scand. 1967; 473: 1, (Suppl.)
   Google Scholar
• Camner P., Philipson K., Friberg L., Holma B., Larsson B., Svedberg J. Human tracheobronchial clearance studies with fluorocarbon resin particles tagged with18F. Arch. Environ. Health 1971; 22: 444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert R. E., Spiegelman J. R., Lippmann M., Bennett R. The characteristics of bronchial clearance in the miniature donkey. Arch. Environ. Health 1968; 17: 50
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson M. L., Short M. D. Mucociliary function in health, chronic obstructive airway disease and asbestosis. J. Appl. Physiol. 1969; 26: 535
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew J. E., Pavia D., Clarke S. W. Airways penetration of inhaled radioaerosol: an index to small airways function. Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 1981; 62: 239
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Naumann B., Chen L. C. A system for measurement of radioactive aerosol retention in the lungs of rabbits. Health Phys. 1982; 42: 73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert R. E., Lippmann M., Briscoe W. The characteristics of bronchial clearance in humans and the effects of cigarette smoking. Arch. Environ. Health 1969; 18: 738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stahlhofen W., Gebhart J., Heyder J., Philipson K., Camner P. Intercomparison of regional deposition of aerosol particles in the human respiratory tract and their long-term elimination. Exp. Lung Res. 1981; 2: 131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey M. R., Fry F. A., James A. C. The long-term clearance kinetics of insoluble particles from the human lung. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1982; 26: 273
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew J. E., Sutton P. P., Pavia D., Clarke S. W. Radioaerosol assessment of mucociliary clearance: towards definition of a normal range. Br. J. Radiol. 1986; 59: 147
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilkey D. D., Lee P. S., Hass F., Gerrity T. R., Yeates D. B., Lourenco R. V. Mucociliary clearance of deposited particles from the human lung: intra- and inter-subject reproductivity, total and regional lung clearance, and model comparison. Arch. Environ. Health 1980; 35: 294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snipes M. B., Muggenburg B. A., Bice D. E. Translocation of particles from lung lobes or the peritoneal cavity to regional lymph nodes in beagle dogs. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1983; 11: 703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creasia D. A. Pathogenesis of nitrogen dioxide-induced respiratory lesions in reference to respiratory clearance of inhaled particulates. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1981; 8: 857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippmann M., Yeates D. B., Albert R. E. Deposition, retention and clearance of inhaled particles. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1980; 37: 337
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ahmed T., Januszkiewicz A. J., Landa J. R., Brown A., Chapman G. A., Kenny P. J., Finn R. D., Bondick J., Sackner M. A. Effect of local radioactivity on tracheal mucus velocity of sheep. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1979; 120: 567
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolff R. K., Hardy S., Muggenburg B. A. Effect of radiolabeled materials on tracheal mucus clearance in beagle dogs. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1982; 126: 505
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Puchelle E., Aug F., Pham Q. T., Bertrand A. Comparison of three methods for measuring nasal mucociliary clearance in man. Acta Otolaryngol. 1981; 91: 297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss J.-M., Gebbardt K. F., Ziegler H., Rensch H. Role of surfactant in peripheral transport mechanisms. Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 1987; 71: 205, (Suppl. 153)
   Google Scholar
• Camner P., Mossberg B., Philipson K. Tracheobronchial clearance and chronic obstructive lung disease. Scand. J. Resp. Dis. 1973; 54: 272
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Halpern M., Lippmann M. Long-term clearance of inhaled magnetite and polystyrene latex from the lung. A comparison. Health Phys. 1982; 42: 68
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bohning D. E., Atkins H. L., Conn S. H. Long-term panicle clearance in man, normal and impaired. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1982; 26: 259
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey M. R., Fry F. A., James A. C. Long-term retention of particles in the human respiratory tract. J. Aerosol Sci. 1985; 16: 295
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Philipson K., Falk R., Camner P. Long-term lung clearance in human studies with Teflon particles labeled with chromium-51. Exp. Lung Res. 1985; 9: 31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen D. Ferromagnetic contamination in the lungs and other organs of the human body. Science 1973; 180: 745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen D., Arai S. F., Brain J. D. Smoking impairs long-term dust clearance from the lung. Science 1979; 204: 514
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern M., Williamson S. J., Spektor D. M., Schlesinger R. B., Lippmann M. Remanent magnetic fields for measuring particle retention and distribution in the lung. Exp. Lung Res. 1981; 2: 27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brain J. D., Bloom S. B., Hu T., Gehr P., Valberg P. A. Magnetic iron dust as a probe of particle clearance, phagocytosis, and particle cytoxicity in the lungs. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1988; 32: 783, (Suppl. 1)
   Google Scholar
• Kenoyer J. L., Phalen R. F., Davis J. R. Particle clearance from the respiratory tract as a test of toxicity: effect of ozone on short and long term clearance. Exp. Lung Res. 1981; 2: 111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannix R. C., Phalen R. F., Walters R. B., Kurosaki T. T. Effects of sulfur dioxide and formaldehyde on particle clearance in the rat. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1983; 12: 429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wehner A. P., Wilkerson C. L. Determination of pulmonary deposition, translocation and clearance using neutron activation techniques. Z. Erkr. Atmungsorgane 1981; 157: 238
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reznik G., Borgmeyer L. Deposition and clearance of labeled cigarette smoke particles in rat respiratory and digestive tract. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1980; 6: 433
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sweeney T. D., Brain J. D., Tryka A. F., Godleski J. J. Retention of inhaled particles in hamsters with pulmonary fibrosis. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1983; 128: 138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warheit D. B., Hartsky M. A. Assessments of pulmonary macrophage clearance responses to inhaled particulates. Scanning Electron Microsc. 1988; 2: 1069
   Google Scholar
• Ferin J., Mercer T. T., Leech L. J. The effect of aerosol charge on the deposition and clearance of TiO2 particles in rats. Environ. Res. 1983; 31: 148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Graft M., Spit B. J., Immel H. R., Feron V. J. Pulmonary response of hamsters to fibrous glass. Clearance and morphology after a single intratracheal instillation. Exp. Pathol. 1986; 29: 197
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Warheit D. B. Interspecies comparisons of lung responses to inhaled particles and gases. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 1989; 20: 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey M. R., Hodgson A., Smith H. Respiratory tract retention of relatively insoluble particles in rodents. J. Aerosol Sci. 1985; 16: 279
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felicetti S. A., Wolff R. K., Muggenburg B. A. Comparison of tracheal mucous transport in rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, and dogs. J. Appl. Physiol 1981; 51: 1612
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snipes M. B., Boecker B. B., McClellan R. O. Retention of monodisperse or polydisperse aluminosilicate particles inhaled by dogs, rats, and mice. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1983; 69: 345
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snipes M. B. Species comparisons for pulmonary retention of inhaled particles. Concepts in Inhalation Toxicology, R. O. McClellan, R. F. Henderson. Hemisphere, New York 1989; 193
   Google Scholar
• Cuddihy R. G., Boecker B. B., Griffith W. C. Modeling the deposition and clearance of inhaled radionuclides. Biological Implications of Radionuclides Released from Nuclear Industries. IAEA, Vienna 1979; Vol. 2: 77
   Google Scholar
• Benson J. M., Henderson R. F., Pickrell J. A. Comparative in vitro cytotoxicity of nickel oxides and nickel-copper oxides to rat, mouse, and dog pulmonary alveolar macrophages. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1988; 24: 373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster W. M., Langenback E. G., Berkofsky E. H. Disassociation in the mucociliary function of central and peripheral airways of asymptomatic smokers. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1985; 132: 633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster W. M., Costa D. L., Langenback E. G. Ozone exposure alters tracheobronchial mucociliary function in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 1987; 63: 996
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speizer F. E., Frank N. R. A comparison of changes in pulmonary flow resistance in healthy volunteers acutely exposed to SO2 by mouth and by nose. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1966; 23: 75
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frank N. R., Yoder R. E., Brain J. D., Yokoyama E. SO2[35S labeled] adsorption by the nose and mouth under conditions of varying concentration and flow. Arch. Environ. Health 1969; 18: 315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson I., Lundqvist G. R., Jensen P. L., Proctor D. F. Human response to controlled levels of sulfur dioxide. Arch. Environ. Health 1974; 28: 31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wolff R. K., Dolovich M., Rossman C. M., Newhouse M. T. Sulphur dioxide and tracheobronchial clearance in man. Arch. Environ. Health 1975; 30: 521
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Driscoll K. E. Mucociliary clearance from the lungs of rabbits following single and intermittent exposure to ozone. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1987; 20: 125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driscoll K. E., Vollmuth T. A., Schlesinger R. B. Early alveolar clearance of particles in rabbits undergoing acute and subchronic exposure to ozone. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1986; 7: 264
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Driscoll K. E., Vollmuth T. A., Schlesinger R. B. Acute and subchronic ozone inhalation in the rabbit: response of alveolar macrophages. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1987; 21: 27
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff R. R., Muggenburg B. A., Silbaugh S. A. Effects of 0.3 and 0.9 μm sulfuric acid aerosols on tracheal mucous clearance in beagle dogs. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1981; 123: 291
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stanley P. J., Wilson R., Greenstone M. A., MacWilliam L., Cole P. J. Effect of cigarette smoke on nasal mucociliary clearance and ciliary beat frequency. Thorax 1986; 41: 519
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albert R. E., Peterson H. T., Bohning D. E. Short-term effects of cigarette smoking on bronchial clearance in humans. Arch. Environ. Health 1975; 30: 361
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavia D., Thomson M. L., Pocock S. J. Evidence for temporary slowing of mucociliary clearance in the lung by tobacco smoke. Nature 1971; 231: 325
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavia D., Short M. D., Thomson M. L. No demonstrable long term effects of cigarette smoking on the mucociliary mechanism of the human lung. Nature 1970; 226: 1228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lourenco R. V., Klimek M. F., Borowski C. J. Deposition and clearance of 2 μm particles in the tracheobronchial tree of normal subjects — smokers and non-smokers. J. Clin. Invest. 1971; 50: 1411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodman R. M., Yergin B. M., Landa J. F., Golinvaux M. H., Sackner M. A. Relationship of smoking history and pulmonary function tests to tracheal mucus velocity in nonsmokers, young smokers, ex-smokers and patients with chronic bronchitis. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1978; 117: 205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camner P., Philipson K. Tracheobronchial clearance in smoking-discordant twins. Arch. Environ. Health 1972; 25: 60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley P. J., MacWilliam L., Greenstone M. A., Daly C., Cole P. J. Prolonged nasal mucociliary clearance in healthy smokers. Thorax 1984; 39: 239
   Google Scholar
• Vastag E., Matthys H., Zsamboki G., Kohler D., Daikeler G. Mucociliary clearance in smokers. Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 1986; 68: 107
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Albert R. E., Lippmann M., Peterson H. T., Jr. The effects of cigarette smoking on the kinetics of bronchial clearance in humans and donkeys. Inhaled Particles III, W. H. Walton. Unwin Bros., SurreyUK 1971; Vol. 1: 165
   Google Scholar
• Holtzman M. J., Cunningham J. H., Shelter J. R., Irsigler G. B., Nadel J. A., Boushey H. A. Effects of ozone on bronchial reactivity in atopic and nonatopic subjects. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1979; 120: 1059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheppard D., Wong W. S., Uehara C. F., Nadel J. A., Boushey H. A. Lower threshold and greater bronchomotor responsiveness of asthmatic subjects to sulfur dioxide. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1980; 122: 873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Utell M. J., Morrow P. E., Hyde D. W. Comparison of normal and asthmatic subjects response to sulfate pollutant aerosols. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1982; 26: 691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff R. K., Obminski G., Newhouse M. T. Exposure of symptomatic steelworkers to SO2 and carbon dust: effects on mucociliary transport, pulmonary function, and bronchial reactivity. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1984; 41: 499
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Spektor D. M., Leikauf G. D., Albert R. E., Lippmann M. Effects of submicrometer sulfuric acid aerosols on mucociliary transport and respiratory mechanics in asymptomatic asthmatics. Environ. Res. 1985; 37: 174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene S. A., Lundgren D. L., Snipes M. B., Wolff R. K. Deposition and clearance of particles inhaled by beagle dogs previously exposed to SO2. Exp. Lung Res. 1987; 13: 417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalhamn T., Strandberg L. Acute effects of sulfur dioxide on the rate of ciliary beat in the trachea of the rabbit (in vivo and in vitro) with studies on the absorption capacity of the nasal cavity. Int. J. Air Water Pollut. 1967; 4: 154
   Google Scholar
• Dalhamn T., Sjoholm J. Studies of SO2, NO2 and NH3: effect on ciliary activity in rabbit trachea of single in vitro exposure and resorption in rabbit nasal cavity. Acta Physiol. Scand. 1963; 58: 287
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heller R. F., Gordon R. E. Chronic effects of nitrogen dioxide on cilia in hamster bronchioles. Exp. Lung Res. 1986; 10: 137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oomichi S., Kita H. Effect of air pollutants on ciliary activity of respiratory tract. Bull. Tokyo Med. Dent. Univ. 1974; 21: 327
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tremer H. M., Falk H. L., Kotin P. Effect of air pollutants on ciliated mucus-secreting epithelium. JNCI 1959; 23: 979
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grose E. C., Gardner D. E., Miller F. J. Response of ciliated epithelium to ozone and sulfuric acid. Environ. Res. 1980; 22: 377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schiff L. J., Bryne M. M., Fenters D., Graham J. A., Gardner D. E. Cytotoxic effects of sulfuric acid mist, carbon particulates, and their mixtures on hamster tracheal epithelium. Environ. Res. 1979; 19: 339
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan K. T., Patterson D. L., Gross E. A. Responses of the nasal mucociliary apparatus of F-344 rats to formaldehyde gas. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1986; 82: 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adalis D., Gardner D. E., Miller F. J., Coffin D. L. Toxic effects of cadmium on ciliary activity using a tracheal ring model system. Environ. Res. 1977; 13: 111
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mass M. J., Lane B. P. Effect of chromates on ciliated cells of rat tracheal epithelium. Arch. Environ. Health 1976; 31: 96
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballenger J. J. Experimental effect of cigarette smoke on human respiratory cilia. N. Engl. J. Med. 1960; 263: 832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalhamn T. The effect of cigarette smoke on ciliary activity in the upper respiratory tract. Arch. Otolaryngol. 1959; 70: 166
   Google Scholar
• Kensler G. J., Battista S. P. Components of cigarette smoke with ciliary depressant activity. N. Engl. J. Med. 1963; 269: 1161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woolsgrove B., Buch S. A., Binns R. The effect of prolonged exposure to dilute cigarette smoke on the particle clearance mechanism of the rat lung. Airborne Transmission and Airborne Infection, J. F. Hers, K. C. Winkler. Publ. Oosthoek, Amsterdam 1973; 232
   Google Scholar
• Ranga V., Kleiner man J. A quantitative study of ciliary injury in the small airways of mice: the effects of nitrogen dioxide. Exp. Lung Res. 1981; 2: 49
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rombout P. J. A., Dormans J. A. M. A., Marra M., Von Esch G. Influence of exposure regimes on nitrogen dioxide-induced morphological changes in rat lung. Environ. Res. 1986; 41: 466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sleigh M. A. Ciliary activity in the respiratory tract and the effects of tobacco smoke. Smoking and the Lung, G. Cumming, G. Bon-Signore. Plenum Press, New York 1984; 333
   Google Scholar
• Ailsby R. L., Ghadially F. N. Atypical cilia in human bronchial mucosa. J. Pathol. 1973; 109: 75
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Last J. A. Mucus production and the ciliary escalator. Mechanisms in Respiratory Toxicology, H. Witschi, P. Nettesheim. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 1982; Vol. 1: 247
   Google Scholar
• Holma B., Lindegren M., Anderson J. M. pH effects on ciliomotility and morphology of respiratory mucosa. Arch. Environ. Health 1977; 32: 216
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dalhamn T. Mucous flow and ciliary activity in the trachea of healthy rats and rats exposed to respiratory irritant gases. Acta Physiol. Scand. 1956; 36: 1, (Suppl. 123)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hilding A. C. Ciliary streaming in the lower respiratory tract. Am. J. Physiol. 1957; 181: 404
   Google Scholar
• Litt M. Mucus rheology. Relevance to mucociliary clearance. Arch. Intern. Med. 1970; 126: 417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanderson M. J., Sleigh M. Ciliary activity of cultured rabbit tracheal epithelium: beat pattern and metachrony. J. Cell Sci. 1981; 47: 331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor D. F., Adams G. K., Andersen I., Man S. P. F. Nasal mucociliary clearance in man. Respiratory Tract Mucus. Elsevier, Amsterdam 1978; 219
   Google Scholar
• Gatto L. A., Houck B. M. Mucociliary transport and epithelial morphology with elongation and collapse in rat trachea. Exp. Lung Res. 1989; 15: 239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadel J. A., Davis B., Phipps R. J. Control of mucus secretion and ion transport in airways. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 1979; 41: 369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stutts M. J., Boucher R. C., Bromberg P. A., Gatzy J. T. Effects of ammonium and nitrate salts on ion transport across the excised canine trachea. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1981; 60: 91
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stutts M. J., Bromberg P. A. Effects of ozone on airway epithelial permeability and ion transport. Toxicol. Lett. 1987; 35: 315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phipps R. J., Denas S. M., Sielczak M. W., Wanner A. Effects of 0.5 ppm ozone on glycoprotein secretion, ion and water fluxes in sheep trachea. J. Appl. Physiol. 1986; 60: 918
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boucher R. C. Mechanisms of pollutant-induced airways toxicity. Clin. Chest Med. 1981; 2: 377
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stutts M. J., Boucher R. C., Gatzy J. T. Cd(NO3)2 and Zn(NO3)2 — effects on canine tracheal bioelectric properties. Fed. Proc 1980; 39: 395
   Google Scholar
• Al-Bazzaz F. J., Yadava V. P., Westen Felder C. Modification of Na and Cl transport in canine tracheal mucosa by prostaglandins. Am. J. Physiol. 1981; 240: F101
   Google Scholar
• Silberberg A. C. Rheology of mucus, mucociliary interaction and ciliary activity. Mechanism and Control of Ciliary Movement, C. Brokaw, P. Verdugo. Alan R. Liss, New York 1982; 25
   Google Scholar
• Chen T. M., Dulfano M. J. Mucus viscoelasticity and mucociliary transport rate. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 1978; 91: 423
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• King M. Relationship between mucus viscoelasticity and ciliary transport in guaran gel/frog palate model system. Biorheology 1980; 17: 249
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Litt M. Physicochemical determinants of mucociliary flow. Chest 1981; 80: 846, (Suppl. 8)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morgan K. T., Patterson D. L., Gross E. A. Frog palate mucociliary apparatus: structure, function, and reponse to formaldehyde gas. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1984; 4: 58
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holma B. Influence of buffer capacity and pH-dependent rheological properties of respiratory mucus on health effects due to acid pollution. Sci. Total Environ. 1985; 41: 101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffery P. K., Reid L. The effect of tobacco smoke with or without phenylmethyloxadiazole (PMO) on rat bronchial epithelium: a light and electron microscopic study. J. Pathol. 1981; 133: 341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamb D., Reid L. Mitotic rates, goblet cell increase and histochemical changes in mucus in rat bronchial epithelium during exposure to sulphur dioxide. J. Pathol. Bacterial. 1968; 96: 97
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gearhart J. M., Schlesinger R. B. Response of the tracheobronchial mucociliary clearance system to repeated irritant exposure: effect of sulfuric acid mist on function and structure. Exp. Lung Res. 1988; 14: 587
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puchelle E., Zahm J. M., Havez R. Données biochemiques et rhéologiques dans l'expectoration. III. Relation des protéines et mucines bronchiques avec les propriétés rheologiques. Bull. Physiol. Pathol. Respir. 1973; 9: 237
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harkema J. R., Plopper C. G., Hyde D. M., St., George J. A., Dungworth D. L. Effects of an ambient level of ozone on primate nasal epithelial mucosubstances. Quantitative histochemistry. Am. J. Pathol 1987; 127: 90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kollerstrom N., Lord P. W., Whimster W. F. A difference in the composition of bronchial mucus between smokers and non-smokers. Thorax 1977; 32: 155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhaskar K. R., O'Sullivan D. D., Opaskar-Hincman H., Reid L. M. Lipids in airway secretions. Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 1987; 71: 215, (Suppl. 153)
   Google Scholar
• Reid L. M., O'Sullivan D. D., Bhaskar K. R. Pathophysiology of bronchial hypersecretion. Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 1987; 71: 19, (Suppl. 153)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bhaskar K. R., Drazen J. M., O'Sullivan D. D., Scanion P. M., Reid L. M. Transition from normal to hypersecretory bronchial mucus in a canine model of bronchitis: changes in yield and composition. Exp. Lung Res. 1988; 14: 101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Majima Y., Swift D. L., Bang B. G., Bang F. B. Mechanism of slowing of mucociliary transport induced by SO2 exposure. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 1985; 13: 515
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iravani J., Melville G. N. Long-term effect of cigarette smoke on mucociliary function in animals. Respiration 1974; 31: 358
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agnew J. E., Pavia D., Lopez-Vidriero M. T., Clarke S. W. Mucus clearance from peripheral airways. Eur. J. Resp. Dis. 1987; 71: 150, (Suppl. 153)
   Google Scholar
• Lumsden A. B., McLean A., Lamb D. Goblet and Clara cells of human distal airways: evidence for smoking induced changes in their numbers. Thorax 1984; 39: 844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King J., Cohen C., Viires N. Influence of vagal tone on rheology and transportability of canine tracheal mucus. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1979; 120: 1215
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marin M. G., Davis B., Nadel J. A. Effect of acetylcholine on Cl− and Na+ fluxes across dog tracheal epithelium in vitro. Am. J. Physiol. 1976; 231: 1546
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phipps R. J., Williams I. P., Richardson P. S., Pell J., Pack R. J., Wright N. Sympathomimetic drugs stimulate the output of secretory glycoproteins from human bronchi in vitro. Clin. Sci. 1982; 63: 23
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peatfleld A. C., Richardson P. S. Evidence fornon-cholinergic. nonadrenergic nervous control of mucus secretion into the cat trachea. J. Physiol. 1983; 342: 335
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coleridge J. C. G., Coleridge H. M. Afferent vagal C-fiber innervation of the lungs and airways and its functional significance. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1984; 99: 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz H. D., Roberts A. M., Hahn H. L. Mechanisms of airway constriction and secretion evoked by laryngeal administration of SO2 in dogs. Physiologist 1982; 25: 226
   Google Scholar
• Phipps R. J., Richardson P. S. The effects of irritation at various levels of the airway upon tracheal mucus secretion in the cat. J. Physiol. 1976; 261: 563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peatfleld A. C., Richardson P. S. The action of dust in the airways on secretion into the trachea of the cat. J. Physiol. 1983; 342: 327
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brantigan O. C., Mueller E., Kress M. B. A surgical approach to pulmonary emphysema. II. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1959; 80: 194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelhamer J. H., Marom Z., Sun F., Bach M. K., Kaliner M. The effects of arachinoids and leukotrienes on the release of mucus from human airways. Chest 1982; 81: 36S
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marom Z., Shelhamer J. K., Kaliner M. Effects of arachidonic acid, monohydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid and prostaglandins on the release of mucous glycoproteins from human airway in vitro. J. Clin. Invest. 1981; 67: 1695
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marom Z., Shelhamer J. H., Bach M. K., Morton D. R., Kaliner M. Slow-reacting substances, leukotrienes C4 and D4, increase the release of mucus from human airway in vitro. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1982; 126: 449
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peatfleld A. C., Piper P. J., Richardson P. S. The effect of leukotriene C4 on mucin release into the cat trachea. Br. J. Pharmacol. 1982; 77: 391
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Driscoll K. E., Leikauf G. D., Schlesinger R. B. Effects of in vitro and in vivo ozone exposure on eicosanoid production by rabbit alveolar macrophages. Inhal. Toxicol. 1988; 109, Premier Issue
   Google Scholar
• Leikauf G. D., Driscoll K., Wey H. E. Ozone-induced augmentation of eicosanoid metabolism in cultured epithelial cells derived from bovine trachea. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1988; 137: 435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rich B., Peatfleld A. C., Williams I. P., Richardson P. S. Effects of prostaglandins El, E2 and F2 on mucin secretion into human bronchi in vitro. Thorax 1984; 39: 420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marom Z., Shelhamer J. H., Kaliner M. Human pulmonary macrophage-derived mucus secretagogue. J. Exp. Med. 1984; 159: 844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marom Z., Shelhamer J. H., Kaliner M. Human monocyte-derived mucus secretagogue. J. Clin. Invest. 1985; 75: 191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelhamer J. H., Marom Z., Kaliner M. Immunologic and neuropharmacologic stimulation of mucous glycoprotein release from human airways in vitro. J. Clin. Invest. 1980; 66: 1400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez-Vidriero M. T., Das I., Smith A. P., Picot R., Reid L. Bronchial secretion from normal human airways after inhalation of prostaglandin F2a, acetylcholine, histamine and citric acid. Thorax 1977; 32: 734
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marin M. G., Davis B., Nadel J. A. Effect of histamine on electrical and ion transport properties of tracheal epithelium. J. Appl. Physiol. 1977; 42: 735
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scudi J. V., Kimura E. T., Reinhard J. F. Study of drug action on mammalian ciliated epithelium. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1951; 102: 132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iravani J., Melville G. N. Wirkung von pharmaka und milieuanderungen auf die flimmertatigkeit der atemwege. Respiration 1975; 32: 157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanner A., Maurer D., Abraham W. M., Szepfalusi Z., Sielczak M. Effects of chemical mediators of anaphylaxis on ciliary function. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1983; 72: 663
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mussatto D. J., Garrard C. S., Lourenco R. V. The effect of inhaled histamine on human tracheal mucus velocity and bronchial mucociliary clearance. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1988; 138: 775
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lindberg S. Reflex-induced acceleration of mucociliary activity in rabbit after exposure to cigarette smoke. Bull. Eur. Physiopathol. Resp. 1986; 22: 273
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peatfieid A. C., Davies J. R., Richardson P. S. The effect of tobacco smoke upon airway secretion in the cat. Clin. Sci. 1986; 71: 179
   Google Scholar
• Niewoehner D. E., Kleinerman J., Rice D. B. Pathologic changes in the peripheral airways of young smokers. N. Engl. J. Med. 1974; 291: 755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frager N. B., Phalen R. F., Kenoyer J. L. Adaptation to ozone in reference to mucociliary clearance. Arch. Environ. Health 1979; 34: 51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegra L., Abraham W. M., Chapman G. A., Wanner A. Targets of allergic airway challenge and tracheobronchial irritation with ozone in an animal model (sheep). Eur. J. Resp. Dir. 1983; 65: 45, (Suppl. 126)
   Google Scholar
• Last J. A., Kaizu T. Mucus glycoprotein secretion by tracheal explants: effects of pollutants. Environ. Health Perspect. 1980; 35: 131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B. Effects of inhaled acid aerosols on lung defenses. Aerosols: Research, Risk Assessment and Control Strategies, S. D. Lee, T. Schneider, L. D. Grant, P. J. Verkeck. Lewis, Chelsea, MI 1986; 617
   Google Scholar
• Klosterkotter W., Gono F. Long-term storage, migration and elimination of dust in the lungs of animals, with special respect to the influence of polyvinyl-pyridine-N-oxide. Inhaled Particles III, W. H. Walton. Unwin Bros., Old WokingUK 1971; Vol. 1: 273
   Google Scholar
• Glaser U., Hochrainer D., Kloppel H., Kuhnen H. Low level chromium (VI) inhalation effects on alveolar macrophages and immune functions in Wistar rats. Arch. Toxicol. 1985; 57: 250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metivier H. Animal data on clearance. Lung Modelling for Inhalation of Radioactive Materials, H. Smith, G. Gerber. Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg 1984; 77
   Google Scholar
• Greenspan B. J., Morrow P. E., Ferin J. Effects of aerosol exposures to cadmium chloride on the clearance of titanium dioxide from the lungs of rats. Exp. Lung Res. 1988; 14: 491
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bitterman P. B., Rennard S. I., Crystal R. G. Environmental lung disease and the interstitium. Chest Med. 1981; 2: 393
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warheit D. B., Hill L. H., Brody A. R. Surface morphology and correlated phagocytic capacity of pulmonary macrophages lavaged from the lungs of rats. Exp. Lung Res. 1984; 6: 71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham J. A., Gardner D. E., Waters M. D., Coffin D. L. Effect of trace metals on phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages. Infect. Immun. 1975; 11: 1278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenspan B. J., Morrow P. E. The effects of in vitro and aerosol exposures to cadmium on phagocytosis by rat pulmonary macrophages. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1984; 4: 48
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gee J. B. L., Boynton B. R., Khandivala A. S. Pulmonary alveolar macrophage function: some effects of cigarette smoke. Assessing Toxic Effects of Environmental Pollutants, S. D. Lee, J. B. Mudd. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI 1979; 77
   Google Scholar
• Haroz R. K., Mattenberger-Kneber L. Effect of cigarette smoke on macrophage phagocytosis. Pulmonary Macrophage and Epithelial Cells, C. Sanders, R. P. Schneider, G. E. Dagle, H. A. Ragan. NTIS, Springfield, VA 1977; 36
   Google Scholar
• Harris J. O., Swenson E. Q., Johnson J. E., III. Human alveolar macrophages: comparison of phagocytic ability, glucose utilization, and ultrastructure in smokers and nonsmokers. J. Clin. Invest. 1970; 49: 2086
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camner P., Hellstrom P. A., Lundborg M. Coating 5 μm particles with carbon and metals for lung clearance studies. Arch. Environ. Health 1973; 27: 331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camner P., Lundborg M., Hellstrom P. A. Alveolar macrophages and 5 μm particles coated with different metals. In vitro studies. Arch. Environ. Health 1974; 29: 211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad S. B., Rao V. S., Mannix R. C., Phalen R. F. Effects of pollutant atmospheres on surface receptors of pulmonary macrophages. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1988; 24: 385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoidal J. R., Schmeling D., Peterson P. K. Phagocytosis, bacterial killing and metabolism by purified human lung phagocytes. J. Infect. Dis. 1981; 144: 61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tryka A. F., Godleski J. J., Brain J. D. Alterations in alveolar macrophages in hamsters developing fibrosis. Exp. Lung Res. 1984; 7: 41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundborg M., Lind B., Camner P. Ability of rabbit alveolar macrophages to dissolve metals. Exp. Lung Res. 1984; 7: 11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camner P., Curstedt T., Jarstrand C., Johannsson A., Robertson B., Wiernik A. Rabbit lung after inhalation of manganese chloride: a comparison with the effects of chlorides of nickel, cadmium, cobalt and copper. Environ. Res. 1985; 38: 301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marafante E., Lundborg M., Vahter M., Camner P. Dissolution of two arsenic compounds by alveolar macrophages. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1987; 8: 382
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stickle D. F., Lauffenburger D. A., Daniele R. P. The motile response of lung macrophages: theoretical and experimental approaches using the linear under-agarose assay. J. Leukocyte Biol. 1985; 38: 383
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Warr G. A., Martin R. R. In vitro migration of alveolar macrophages: effects of cigarette smoking. Infect. Immun. 1973; 8: 222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aranyi C., Andres S., Ehrlich R., Fenters J. D., Gardner D. E., Waters M. D. Cytotoxicity to alveolar macrophages of metal oxides adsorbed on fly ash. Pulmonary Macrophage and Epithelial Cells, C. L. Sanders, R. P. Schneider, G. E. Dagle, H. A. Ragan. NTIS, Springfield, VA 1977; 58
   Google Scholar
• Brain J. D. The effects of increased particles on the number of alveolar macrophages. Inhaled Particles III, W. H. Walton. Unwin Bros., Old WokingUK 1971; Vol. 1: 209
   Google Scholar
• Bowden D. H., Adamson I. Y. R. Role of monocytes and interstitial cells in the generation of alveolar macrophages. I. Kinetic studies of normal mice. Lab. Invest. 1980; 42: 511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blusse van Oud Alblas A., Mattie H., Van Furth R. A quantitative evaluation of pulmonary macrophage kinetics. Cell Tissue Kinet. 1983; 16: 211
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bowden D. A. Macrophages, dust and pulmonary diseases. Exp. Lung Res. 1987; 12: 89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolton R. E., Vincent J. H., Jones A. D., Addison J., Beckett S. T. An overloading hypothesis for pulmonary clearance of UICC Amosite fibers inhaled by rats. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1983; 40: 264
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chan T. L., Lee P. S., Hering W. E. Pulmonary retention of inhaled diesel particles after prolonged exposures to diesel exhaust. Fund. Appl. Toxicol 1984; 4: 624
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heinrich U., Muhl H., Takenaka S., Ernst H., Fuhst R., Mohr U., Pott F., Stober W. Chronic effects on the respiratory tract of hamsters, mice and rats after long-term inhalation of high concentrations of filtered and unfiltered diesel engine emissions. J. Appl. Toxicol. 1986; 6: 383
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff R. K., Henderson R. F., Snipes M. B., Mauderly J. L., Cuddihy R. G., McClellan R. O. Alterations in particle accumulation and clearance in lungs of rats chronically exposed to diesel exhaust. Fund. Appl. Toxicol 1987; 9: 154
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Strom K. E., Johnson J. T., Chan T. L. Retention and clearance of inhaled submicron carbon black particles. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1989; 26: 183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee P. S., Gorski R. A., Hering W. E., Chan T. L. Lung clearance of inhaled particles after exposure to carbon black generated from a resuspension system. Environ. Res. 1987; 43: 364
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuno K., Tanaka I., Kodama Y. Pulmonary deposition and clearance of a coal fly ash aerosol by inhalation. Environ. Res. 1986; 41: 195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow P. E. Possible mechanisms to explain dust overloading of the lungs. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1988; 10: 369
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adamson I. Y. R., Bowden D. A. Effects of irradiation on macrophagic response and transport of particles across the alveolar epithelium. Am. J. Pathol. 1982; 106: 40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adamson I. Y. R., Bowden D. H. Adaptive responses of the pulmonary macrophagic system to carbon. II. Morphologic studies. Lab. Invest. 1978; 38: 430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden D. H., Adamson I. Y. R. The role of cell injury and the continuing inflammatory response in the generation of silicotic pulmonary fibrosis. J. Pathol 1984; 144: 149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowden D. H., Adamson I. Y. R. Bronchiolar and alveolar lesions in the pathogenesis of crocidolite-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. J. Pathol 1985; 147: 257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strom K. A., Chan T. L., Johnson J. T. Pulmonary retention of inhaled submicron particles in rats: diesel exhaust exposures and lung retention model. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1988; 32: 645, (Suppl. 1)
   Google Scholar
• Newton P. E., Latendresse J. R., Mattie D. R., Pfledderer C. Alterations in alveolar clearance after 4-ipomeanol-induced necrosis of Clara and ciliated cells in the terminal bronchioles of the rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1985; 80: 534
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsnelson B. A., Privalova L. I. Recruitment of phagocytizing cells into the respiratory tract as a response to the cytotoxic action of deposited particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 1984; 55: 313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churg A., Tron V., Wright J. L. Effects of cigarette smoke exposure on retention of asbestos fibers in various morphologic compartments of the guinea pig lung. Am. J. Pathol 1987; 129: 385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossman C. M., Lee R. M. K. W., Forrest J. B., Newhouse M. T. Nasal ciliary ultrastructure and function in patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia compared with that in normal subjects and in subjects with various respiratory diseases. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1984; 129: 161
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanner A. Pulmonary defense mechanisms: mucociliary clearance. Current Pulmonology, D. H. Simmons. Houghton Mifflin, New York 1980; Vol. 2: 325
   Google Scholar
• Niederman M. S., Rafferty T. D., Sasaki C. T., Merrill W. W., Matthay R. A., Reynolds H. Y. Comparison of bacterial adherence to ciliated and squamous epithelial cells obtained from the human respiratory tract. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1983; 127: 85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cumming G., Semple S. J. Disorders of the Respiratory System. Blackwell, Oxford 1980
   Google Scholar
• Laurenzi G. A., Guarneri J. J. Effects of bacteria and viruses on ciliated epithelium. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1966; 93: 134
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bang F. B., Foard M. Interaction of respiratory epithelium on the chick and Newcastle disease virus. Am. J. Hyg. 1964; 79: 260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lourenco R. V., Stanley E. D., Gattnaitan B., Jackson G. G. Abnormal deposition and clearance of inhaled particles during upper respiratory and viral infections. J. Clin. Invest. 1971; 50: 62a
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Lippmann M. Selective particle deposition and bronchogenic carcinoma. Environ. Res. 1978; 15: 424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotin P., Falk H. L. The role and action of environmental agents in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. I. Air pollutants. Cancer 1959; 12: 147
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auerbach O., Stout A. P., Hammond E. C., Garfinkel L. Changes in bronchial epithelium in relation to cigarette smoking and in relation to lung cancer. N. Engl J. Med. 1961; 265: 253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macklin C. C. Induction of bronchial cancer by local massing of carcinogen in outdrifting mucus. J. Thorac. Surg. 1956; 31: 238
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hilding A. C. Ciliary streaming in the bronchial tree and the time element in carcinogenesis. N. Engl J. Med. 1957; 256: 634
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthys H., Vastag E., Kohler D., Daikeler G., Fischer J. Mucociliary clearance in patients with chronic bronchitis and bronchial carcinoma. Respiration 1983; 44: 329
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan A., Black S., Evans J. C., Hadfield E. H., Macbeth R. G., Walsh M. Impairment of nasal mucociliary clearance in woodworkers in the furniture industry. Proc. 1st Int. Congr. on Aerosols in Medicine. Internationale Gesellschaft fur Aerosole in der Medizin, Frankfurt/Main 1973; 335
   Google Scholar
• Hadfield E. H., Macbeth R. G. Adenocarcinoma of ethmoids in furniture workers. Ann. Otol Rhinol. Laryngol. 1971; 80: 699
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wanner A. Clinical aspects of mucociliary transport. Am. Rev, Resp. Dis. 1977; 116: 73
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lippmann M., Schlesinger R. B., Leikauf G., Spektor D., Albert R. E. Effects of sulphuric acid aerosols on respiratory tract airways. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1982; 26: 677
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mossberg B., Camner P. Impaired mucociliary transport as a pathogenetic factor in obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 1980; 77: 265, (Suppl.)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cresia D. A., Nettesheim P., Hammons A. S. Impairment of deep lung clearance by influenza virus infection. Arch. Environ. Health 1973; 26: 197
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McFadden D., Wright J. T., Wiggs B., Churg A. Smoking inhibits asbestos clearance. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1986; 133: 372
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathan C. F., Murray H. W., Cohn Z. A. The macrophage as an effector cell. N. Engl. J. Med. 1980; 303: 622
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takemura R., Werb Z. Secretory products of macrophages and their physiological functions. Am. J. Physiol 1984; 246: C1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werb Z. How the macrophage regulates its extracellular environment. Am. J. Anat. 1983; 166: 237
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ward P. A. Host-defense mechanisms responsible for lung injury. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1986; 78: 373
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brain J. D. Macrophage damage in relation to the pathogenesis of lung disease. Environ. Health Perspect. 1980; 35: 21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warheit D. V., Chang L. Y., Hill L. H., Hook G. E. R., Crapo J. D., Brody A. R. Pulmonary macrophage accumulation and asbestos-induced lesions at sites of fiber deposition. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1984; 129: 301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godard P., Chaintreuil J., Damon M., Coupe M., Flandre O., De Paulet A. C., Michel F. B. Functional assessment of alveolar macrophages: comparison of cells from asthmatic and normal subjects. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1982; 70: 88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green G. M., Kass E. H. The role of the alveolar macrophage in the clearance of bacteria from the lung. J. Exp. Med. 1964; 119: 167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein E., Lippert W., Warshauer D. Pulmonary alveolar macrophage: defender against bacterial infections of the lung. J. Clin. Invest. 1974; 54: 519
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hocking W. F., Golde D. W. The pulmonary alveolar macrophage. N. Engl. J. Med. 1979; 301: 580
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spurgash A., Ehrlich R., Petzold R. Effect of cigarette smoke on resistance to respiratory infection. Arch. Environ. Health 1968; 16: 385
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakab G. Adverse effect of a cigarette smoke component, acrolein, on pulmonary antibacterial defenses and on viral-bacterial interactions in the lung. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1977; 115: 33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller F. J., Illing J. N., Gardner D. E. Effect of urban ozone levels on laboratory-induced respiratory infections. Toxicol. Lett. 1978; 2: 163
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein E., Tyler W. S., Hoeprich P. D., Eagle C. Ozone and the antibacterial defense mechanisms of the murine lung. Arch. Intern. Med. 1971; 127: 1099
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein E., Eagler M. C., Hoeprich P. D. Effects of nitrogen dioxide on pulmonary bacterial defense mechanisms. Arch. Environ. Health 1973; 26: 202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergstrom R. Acute pulmonary toxicity of manganese dioxide. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 1977; 3: 7
   Google Scholar
• Gardner R. E. Dysfunction of host defenses following nickel inhalation. Nickel Toxicology, S. S. Brown, F. W. Sunderman. Academic Press, New York 1980; 121
   Google Scholar
• Bouley G., Dubreuil A., Despaux N., Boudene C. Toxic effects of cadmium microparticles on the respiratory system. An experimental study on rats and mice. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 1977; 3: 116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brownstein D. G. Tracheal mucociliary transport in laboratory mice: evidence for genetic polymorphism. Exp. Lung Res. 1987; 13: 185
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilsman N. J., Morrison W. B., Farnum C. E., Fox L. E. Microtubular protofilaments and subunits of the outer dynein arm in cilia from dogs with primary ciliary dyskinesia. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1987; 135: 137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryan J. H. D. Abnormal cilia in a male-sterile mutant mouse. Virchows Arch. 1983; 400: 77
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abraham W. M., Januszkiewicz A. K., Mingle M., Welker M., Wanner A., Sackner M. A. Sensitivity of bronchoprovocation and tracheal mucous velocity in detecting airway responses to O3. J. Appl. Physiol. 1980; 48: 789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein E., Tyler W. S., Hoeprich P. D., Eagle C. Adverse influence of ozone on pulmonary bactericidal activity of murine lung. Nature 1971; 229: 262
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abraham W. M., Welker M., Oliver W., Jr., Mingle M., Januszkiewicz A. J., Wanner A., Sackner M. A. Cardiopulmonary effects of short-term nitrogen dioxide exposure in conscious sheep. Environ. Res. 1980; 22: 61
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B. Comparative toxicity of ambient air pollutants: some aspects related to lung defense. Environ. Health Perspect. 1989; 81: 123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giordano A. M., Morrow P. E. Chronic low-level nitrogen dioxide exposure and mucociliary clearance. Arch. Environ. Health 1972; 25: 443
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Vollmuth T. A., Driscoll K. E. Effect of repeated exposures to nitrogen dioxide or sulfuric acid mist alone or in combination on mucociliary clearance from the lungs of rabbits. Environ. Res. 1987; 44: 294
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Newhouse M. T., Dolovich M., Obminski G. Effect of TLV levels of SO2 and H2SO4 on bronchial clearance in exercising man. Arch. Environ. Health 1978; 33: 24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch J. A., Swenson E. W., Wanner A. Tracheal mucus transport in beagles after long-term exposure to 1 ppm sulfur dioxide. Arch. Environ. Health 1975; 30: 249
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Camner P., Hellstrom P. A., Philipson K. Carbon dust and mucociliary transport. Arch. Environ. Health 1973; 26: 294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abraham W. M., Kim C. S., Januszkiewicz A. J., Welker M., Mingle M., Schreck R. Effects of a brief low-level exposure to the particulate fraction of diesel exhaust on pulmonary function of conscious sheep. Arch. Environ. Health 1980; 35: 77
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Battigelli M. C., Hengstenberg F., Mannella R. J., Thomas A. P. Mucociliary activity. Arch. Environ. Health 1966; 12: 460
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdoerster G., Green F. Y. H., Freedman A. P. Clearance of59Fe2O3 particles from the lungs of rats during exposure to coal mine dust and diesel exhaust. J. Aerosol Sci. 1984; 15: 235
   Google Scholar
• Sackner M. A., Ford D., Fernandez J., Cipley J., Perez D., Kwoka M., Reinhart M., Michaelson E. D., Schreck R., Wanner A. Effects of sulfuric acid aerosol on cardiopulmonary function of dogs, sheep and humans. Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 1978; 118: 497
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Lippmann M., Albert R. Effects of short-term exposures to sulfuric acid and ammonium sulfate aerosols upon bronchial airway function in the donkey. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 1978; 39: 275
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phalen R. F., Kenoyer J. L., Crocker T. T., McClure T. R. Effects of sulfate aerosols in combination with ozone on elimination of tracer particles by rats. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1980; 6: 797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairchild G. A., Kane P., Adams B., Coffin D. Sulfuric acid andStreptococci clearance from respiratory tracts of mice. Arch. Environ. Health 1975; 30: 538
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Chen L. C., Driscoll K. E. Exposure-response relationship of bronchial mucociliary clearance in rabbits following acute inhalations of sulfuric acid mist. Toxicol. Lett. 1984; 22: 249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Naumann B. D., Chen L. D. Physiological and histological alterations in the bronchial mucociliary clearance system of rabbits following intermittent oral or nasal inhalation of sulfuric acid mist. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1983; 12: 441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Halpern M., Albert R. E., Lippmann M. Effect of chronic inhalation of sulfuric acid mist upon mucociliary clearance from the lungs of donkeys. J. Exp. Pathol. Toxicol. 1979; 2: 1351
   Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B. Comparative irritant potency of inhaled sulfate aerosols. Effects on bronchial mucociliary clearance. Environ. Res. 1984; 34: 268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sackner M. A., Dougherty R. L., Chapman G. A., Cipley J., Perez D., Kwoka M., Reinhart M., Brito M., Schreck R. Effects of brief and intermittent exposures to sulfate submicron aerosols and sulfate injections on cardiopulmonary function of dogs and tracheal mucous velocity of sheep. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1981; 7: 951
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friberg L., Holma B., Rylander R. Animal lung reactions after inhalation of lead and ozone. Environ. Physiol. Biochem. 1972; 2: 170
   Google Scholar
• Vollmuth T. A., Driscoll K. E., Schlesinger R. B. Changes in early alveolar particle clearance due to single and repeated nitrogen dioxide exposures in the rabbit. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1986; 19: 255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Gearhart J. M. Intermittent exposures to mixed atmospheres of nitrogen dioxide and sulfuric acid: effect on particle clearance from the respiratory region of rabbit lungs. Toxicology 1987; 44: 309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferin J., Leach L. J. The effects of selected air pollutants on clearance of titanic oxide particles from the lungs of rats. Inhaled Particles IV, W. H. Walton. Pergamon Press, Oxford 1977; 333, part 1
   Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B., Gearhart J. M. Early alveolar clearance in rabbits intermittently exposed to sulfuric acid mist. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1986; 17: 213
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffis L. C., Wolff R. K., Henderson R. F., Griffith W. C., Mokler B. V., McClellan R. O. Clearance of diesel soot particles from rat lung after a subchronic diesel exhaust exposure. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1983; 3: 99
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mauderly J. L., Gillett N. A., Henderson R. F., Jonews R. K., McClellan R. O. Relationship of lung structural and functional changes to accumulation of diesel exhaust particles. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1988; 32: 659, (Suppl. 1)
   Google Scholar
• Muhle H., Bellman B., Heinrich V. Overloading of lung clearance during chronic exposure of experimental animals to particles. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 1988; 32: 141, (Suppl. 1)
   Google Scholar
• Christman C. A., Schwartz L. W. Enhanced phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages induced by short-term ozone insult. Environ. Res. 1982; 28: 241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein E., Bartlema H. C., Van der Ploeg M., Van Diujn P., Van der Stap J. G., Lippert W. The effect of ozone on lysosomal enzymes of alveolar macrophages engaged in phagocytosis and killing of inhaled. Staphylococcus aureaus, J. Infect. Dis. 1978; 138: 299
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coffin D. L., Gardner D. E., Holzman R. S., Wolock F. J. Influence of ozone on pulmonary cells. Arch. Environ. Health 1968; 16: 633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz G. V., Laskin S. Effect of irritant atmospheres on macrophage behavior. Pulmonary Macrophage and Epithelial Cells, C. Sanders, R. Schneider, G. Dagel, H. A. Ragan. NTIS, Springfield, VA 1977; 358
   Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B. Intermittent inhalation of nitrogen dioxide: effects on rabbit alveolar macrophages. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1987; 21: 127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehrlich R., Findley J. C., Gardner D. E. Effects of repeated exposures to peak concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and ozone on resistance to Streptococcal pneumonia. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1979; 5: 631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson A., Camner P., Jarstrand C., Wiernik A. Rabbit alveolar macrophages after inhalation of soluble cadmium, cobalt and copper: a comparison with the effects of soluble nickel. Environ. Res. 1983; 31: 340
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansson A., Camner P., Jarstrand C., Wiernick A. Rabbit lungs after long-term exposure to low nickel dust concentration III. Effects on morphology and function. Environ. Res. 1983; 30: 142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen S., Weller M. A., Barnhart M. I. Effects of diesel engine exhaust on pulmonary alveolar macrophages. Scanning Electron Microsc. 1980; 3: 327
   Google Scholar
• McAllen S. J., Chiu S. P., Phalen R. F., Rasmussen R. E. Effect of in vivo ozone exposure on in vitro pulmonary alveolar macrophage mobility. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 1981; 7: 373
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger R. B. Functional assessment of rabbit alveolar macrophages following intermittent inhalation exposure to sulfuric acid mist. Fund. Appl. Toxicol. 1987; 8: 328
   PubMedGoogle Scholar