170
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Obesity and Its Relationship to Addictions: Is Overeating a Form of Addictive Behavior?

, PhD, , EdM & , PhD
Pages 439-451 | Received 30 Sep 2008, Accepted 02 Mar 2009, Published online: 29 Oct 2009

REFERENCES

  • Ogden CL, Yanovski SZ, Carroll MD, Flegal KM. The epidemiology of obesity. Gastroenterology. 2007;132:2087–2102.
  • Brownell KD. 2004; The LEARN program for weight management. 10th ed. Dallas: American Health Publishing Company;
  • Wing RR. Behavioral treatment of obesity. In: Wadden TA, Stunkard AJ. eds.. Obesity Handbook.New York: Guilford Press 2000: 455–462.
  • French SA, Story M, Jeffery RW. Environmental influences on eating and physical activity. Annu Rev Public Health. 2001;22:309–335.
  • Holden C. ‘Behavioral’ addictions: do they exist. Science. 2001;294:980–982.
  • Volkow ND, Wise RA. How can drug addiction help us understand obesity? Nat Neurosci. 2005;8:555–560.
  • Gawin FH. Cocaine addiction: psychology and neurophysiology. Science. 1991;251:1580–1586.
  • Shaffer HJ, LaPlante DA, LaBrie RA, Kidman RC, Donato AN, Stanton MV. Toward a syndrome model of addiction: multiple expressions, common etiology. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2004;12:367–374.
  • Must A, Spadano J, Coakley EH, Field AE, Colditz G, Dietz WH. The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA. 1999;282:1523–1529.
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM IV-TR. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.
  • James GA, Gold MS, Liu Y. Interaction of satiety and reward response to food stimulation. J Addict Dis. 2004;23:23–37.
  • Volkow ND, O’Brien CP. Issues for DSM-V: should obesity be included as a brain disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:708–710.
  • Devlin MJ. Is there a place for obesity in DSM-V? Int J Eat Disord. 2007;40:S83–88.
  • Petry NM, Barry D, Pietrzak RH, Wagner JA. Overweight and obesity are associated with psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Psychosom Med. 2008;70:288–297.
  • Barry D, Petry NM. Associations between body mass index and substance use disorders differ by gender: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Addict Behav. 2009;34:51–60.
  • Scott KM, Bruffaerts R, Simon GE, . Obesity and mental disorders in the general population: results from the world mental health surveys. Int J Obes. 2008;32:192–200.
  • John U, Meyer C, Rumpf HJ, Hapke U. Relationships of psychiatric disorders with overweight and obesity in an adult general population. Obes Res. 2005;13:101–109.
  • Colditz GA, Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, . Alcohol intake in relation to diet and obesity in women and men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;54:49–55.
  • Simon GE, Von Korff M, Saunders K, . Association between obesity and psychiatric disorders in the US adult population. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:824–830.
  • Pickering RP, Grant BF, Chou SP, Compton WM. Are overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity associated with psychopathology? Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:998–1009.
  • John U, Meyer C, Rumpf HJ, Hapke U, Schumann A. Predictors of increased body mass index following cessation of smoking. Am J Addict. 2006;15:192–197.
  • Chiolero A, Jacot-Sadowski I, Faeh D, Paccaud F, Cornuz J. Association of cigarettes smoked daily with obesity in a general adult population. Obesity. 2007;15:1311–1318.
  • Zimlichman E, Kochba I, Mimouni FB, . Smoking habits and obesity in young adults. Addiction. 2005;100:1021–1025.
  • Kalarchian MA, Marcus MD, Levine MD, . Psychiatric disorders among bariatric surgery candidates: relationship to obesity and functional health status. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164:328–334 quiz 374.
  • Kessler RC, Demler O, Frank RG, . Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders, 1990 to 2003. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2515–2523.
  • Kleiner KD, Gold MS, Frost-Pineda K, Lenz-Brunsman B, Perri MG, Jacobs WS. Body mass index and alcohol use. J Addict Dis. 2004;23:105–118.
  • Warren M, Frost-Pineda K, Gold M. Body mass index and marijuana use. J Addict Dis. 2005;24:95–100.
  • Jarvis CM, Hayman LL, Braun LT, Schwertz DW, Ferrans CE, Piano MR. Cardiovascular risk factors and metabolic syndrome in alcohol- and nicotine-dependent men and women. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2007;22:429–435.
  • Rajs J, Petersson A, Thiblin I, Olsson-Mortlock C, Fredriksson A, Eksborg S. Nutritional status of deceased illicit drug addicts in Stockholm, Sweden–a longitudinal medicolegal study. J Forensic Sci. 2004;49:320–329.
  • Schechter MD, Cook PG. Nicotine-induced weight loss in rats without an effect on appetite. Eur J Pharmacol. 1976;38:63–69.
  • Cloninger CR. A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants. A proposal. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44:573–588.
  • Sullivan S, Cloninger CR, Przybeck TR, Klein S. Personality characteristics in obesity and relationship with successful weight loss. Int J Obes. 2007;31:669–674.
  • Hosak L, Preiss M, Halir M, Cermakova E, Csemy L. Temperament and character inventory (TCI) personality profile in metamphetamine abusers: a controlled study. Eur Psychiatry. 2004;19:193–195.
  • Le Bon O, Basiaux P, Streel E, . Personality profile and drug of choice; a multivariate analysis using Cloninger’s TCI on heroin addicts, alcoholics, and a random population group. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004;73:175–182.
  • Conway KP, Kane RJ, Ball SA, Poling JC, Rounsaville BJ. Personality, substance of choice, and polysubstance involvement among substance dependent patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;71:65–75.
  • Grucza RA, Robert Cloninger C, Bucholz KK, . Novelty seeking as a moderator of familial risk for alcohol dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2006;30:1176–1183.
  • Gendall KA, Sullivan PF, Joyce PR, Fear JL, Bulik CM. Psychopathology and personality of young women who experience food cravings. Addict Behav. 1997;22:545–555.
  • Galanti K, Gluck ME, Geliebter A. Test meal intake in obese binge eaters in relation to impulsivity and compulsivity. Int J Eat Disord. 2007;40:727–732.
  • Nasser JA, Gluck ME, Geliebter A. Impulsivity and test meal intake in obese binge eating women. Appetite. 2004;43:303–307.
  • Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR. Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science. 1997;275:1293–1295.
  • Davis C, Levitan RD, Muglia P, Bewell C, Kennedy JL. Decision-making deficits and overeating: a risk model for obesity. Obes Res. 2004;12:929–935.
  • Bechara A, Damasio H. Decision-making and addiction (part I): impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. Neuropsychologia. 2002;40:1675–1689.
  • Weller RE, Cook EW 3rd, Avsar KB, Cox JE. Obese women show greater delay discounting than healthy-weight women. Appetite. 2008;51:563–569.
  • Dom G, D’Haene P, Hulstijn W, Sabbe B. Impulsivity in abstinent early- and late-onset alcoholics: differences in self-report measures and a discounting task. Addiction. 2006;101:50–59.
  • Hanson KL, Luciana M, Sullwold K. Reward-related decision-making deficits and elevated impulsivity among MDMA and other drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;96:99–110.
  • Bechara A, Dolan S, Denburg N, Hindes A, Anderson SW, Nathan PE. Decision-making deficits, linked to a dysfunctional ventromedial prefrontal cortex, revealed in alcohol and stimulant abusers. Neuropsychologia. 2001;39:376–389.
  • Grant S, Contoreggi C, London ED. Drug abusers show impaired performance in a laboratory test of decision making. Neuropsychologia. 2000;38:1180–1187.
  • Petry NM, Bickel WK, Arnett M. Shortened time horizons and insensitivity to future consequences in heroin addicts. Addiction. 1998;93:729–738.
  • Whitlow CT, Liguori A, Livengood LB, . Long-term heavy marijuana users make costly decisions on a gambling task. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004;76:107–111.
  • Fein G, Klein L, Finn P. Impairment on a simulated gambling task in long-term abstinent alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2004;28:1487–1491.
  • Kirby KN, Petry NM, Bickel WK. Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1999;128:78–87.
  • Kirby KN, Petry NM. Heroin and cocaine abusers have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than alcoholics or non-drug-using controls. Addiction. 2004;99:461–471.
  • Petry NM. Discounting of money, health, and freedom in substance abusers and controls. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;71:133–141.
  • Vuchinich RE, Simpson CA. Hyperbolic temporal discounting in social drinkers and problem drinkers. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;6:292–305.
  • Anderson SE, Cohen P, Naumova EN, Must A. Relationship of childhood behavior disorders to weight gain from childhood into adulthood. Ambul Pediatr. 2006;6:297–301.
  • Elkins IJ, McGue M, Iacono WG. Prospective effects of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and sex on adolescent substance use and abuse. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64:1145–1152.
  • Braet C, Claus L, Verbeken S, Van Vlierberghe L. Impulsivity in overweight children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;16:473–483.
  • Agranat-Meged AN, Deitcher C, Goldzweig G, Leibenson L, Stein M, Galili-Weisstub E. Childhood obesity and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a newly described comorbidity in obese hospitalized children. Int J Eat Disord. 2005;37:357–359.
  • Altfas JR. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among adults in obesity treatment. BMC Psychiatry. 2002;2:9–
  • Davis C, Levitan RD, Smith M, Tweed S, Curtis C. Associations among overeating, overweight, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a structural equation modelling approach. Eat Behav. 2006;7:266–274.
  • Schubiner H, Tzelepis A, Milberger S, . Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder among substance abusers. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61:244–251.
  • Krueger RF, Hicks BM, Patrick CJ, Carlson SR, Iacono WG, McGue M. Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: modeling the externalizing spectrum. J Abnorm Psychol. 2002;111:411–424.
  • Young SE, Friedman NP, Miyake A, . Behavioral disinhibition: Liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence. J Abnorm Psychol. 2009;118:117–130.
  • Finn PR, Rickert ME, Miller MA, . Reduced cognitive ability in alcohol dependence: Examining the role of covarying externalizing psychopathology. J Abnorm Psychol. 2009;118:100–116.
  • Boeka AG, Lokken KL. Neuropsychological performance of a clinical sample of extremely obese individuals. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2008;23:467–474.
  • Gunstad J, Paul RH, Cohen RA, Tate DF, Spitznagel MB, Gordon E. Elevated body mass index is associated with executive dysfunction in otherwise healthy adults. Compr Psychiatry. 2007;48:57–61.
  • Bates ME, Bowden SC, Barry D. Neurocognitive impairment associated with alcohol use disorders: implications for treatment. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002;10:193–212.
  • Fals-Stewart W, Bates ME. The neuropsychological test performance of drug-abusing patients: an examination of latent cognitive abilities and associated risk factors. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003;11:34–45.
  • Verdejo-Garcia A, Perez-Garcia M. Profile of executive deficits in cocaine and heroin polysubstance users: common and differential effects on separate executive components. Psychopharmacology. 2007;190:517–530.
  • Del Parigi A, Chen K, Salbe AD, Reiman EM, Tataranni PA. Are we addicted to food. Obes Res. 2003;11:493–495.
  • Wise RA. Drug self-administration viewed as ingestive behaviour. Appetite. 1997;28:1–5.
  • Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Thanos PK, Fowler JS. Similarity between obesity and drug addiction as assessed by neurofunctional imaging: a concept review. J Addict Dis. 2004;23:39–53.
  • Kelley AE, Berridge KC. The neuroscience of natural rewards: relevance to addictive drugs. J Neurosci. 2002;22:3306–3311.
  • Koob GF, Le Moal M. Plasticity of reward neurocircuitry and the “dark side” of drug addiction. Nat Neurosci. 2005;8:1442–1444.
  • Abizaid A, Gao Q, Horvath TL. Thoughts for food: brain mechanisms and peripheral energy balance. Neuron. 2006;51:691–702.
  • Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Logan J, . Brain dopamine and obesity. Lancet. 2001;357:354–357.
  • Hyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ. Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2006;29:565–598.
  • Wise RA, Bozarth MA. Brain mechanisms of drug reward and euphoria. Psychiatr Med. 1985;3:445–460.
  • Volkow ND, Fowler JS. Addiction, a disease of compulsion and drive: involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex. 2000;10:318–325.
  • Blum K, Cull JG, Braverman ER, Comings DE. Reward Deficiency Syndrome. The American Scientist. 1996;84:132–145.
  • Wang GJ, Volkow ND, Felder C, . Enhanced resting activity of the oral somatosensory cortex in obese subjects. Neuroreport. 2002;13:1151–1155.
  • Leibel RL, Rosenbaum M, Hirsch J. Changes in energy expenditure resulting from altered body weight. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:621–628.
  • Blair SN, Nichaman MZ. The public health problem of increasing prevalence rates of obesity and what should be done about it. Mayo Clin Proc. 2002;77:109–113.
  • Lieberman LS. Evolutionary and anthropological perspectives on optimal foraging in obesogenic environments. Appetite. 2006;47:3–9.
  • Nesse RM, Berridge KC. Psychoactive drug use in evolutionary perspective. Science. 1997;278:63–66.
  • Zhang Y, Proenca R, Maffei M, Barone M, Leopold L, Friedman JM. Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature. 1994;372:425–432.
  • Friedman JM, Halaas JL. Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature. 1998;395:763–770.
  • Friedman JM. Leptin, leptin receptors, and the control of body weight. Nutr Rev. 1998;56:S38–46; discussion S54–75.
  • JM Friedman. The function of leptin in nutrition, weight, and physiology. Nutr Rev.. 2002;60:S1–14; discussion S68–84, 85–117
  • Considine RV, Caro JF. Leptin and the regulation of body weight. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 1997;29:1255–1272.
  • Considine RV. Leptin and obesity in humans. Eat Weight Disord. 1997;2:61–66.
  • Kiefer F, Jahn H, Jaschinski M, . Leptin: a modulator of alcohol craving. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;49:782–787.
  • Wren AM, Seal LJ, Cohen MA. Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:5992–
  • Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS, Schmidova K, Wisse BE, Weigle DS. A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes. 2001;50:1714–1719.
  • Klok MD, Jakobsdottir S, Drent ML. The role of leptin and ghrelin in the regulation of food intake and body weight in humans: a review. Obes Rev. 2007;8:21–34.
  • Paik KH, Jin DK, Song SY, . Correlation between fasting plasma ghrelin levels and age, body mass index (BMI), BMI percentiles, and 24-hour plasma ghrelin profiles in Prader Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:3885–3889.
  • Kraus T, Schanze A, Groschl M, . Ghrelin levels are increased in alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005;29:2154–2157.
  • Buckland PR. Will we ever find the genes for addiction. Addiction. 2008;103:1768–1776.
  • Goldman D, Oroszi G, Ducci F. The genetics of addictions: uncovering the genes. Nat Rev Genet. 2005;6:521–532.
  • Leshner AI. Addiction is a brain disease, and it matters. Science. 1997;278:45–47.
  • Centers for Disease Control Prevention. Cigarette smoking among adults—United States, 2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 2005;54:1121–1124.
  • PM Skidmore, JW Yarnell. The obesity epidemic: prospects for prevention. QJM. Dec 2004;97:817–825.
  • Battle EK, Brownell KD. Confronting a rising tide of eating disorders and obesity: treatment vs. prevention and policy. Addict Behav. 1996;21:755–765.
  • Schwartz MB, Brownell KD. Actions necessary to prevent childhood obesity: creating the climate for change. J Law Med Ethics. 2007;35:78–89.
  • Chiu YH, Lee TH, Shen WW. Use of low-dose topiramate in substance use disorder and bodyweight control. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2007;61:630–633.
  • Bray GA, Hollander P, Klein S, . A 6-month randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging trial of topiramate for weight loss in obesity. Obes Res. 2003;11:722–733.
  • Muccioli GG. Blocking the cannabinoid receptors: drug candidates and therapeutic promises. Chem Biodivers. 2007;4:1805–1827.
  • Janero DR, Makriyannis A. Targeted modulators of the endogenous cannabinoid system: future medications to treat addiction disorders and obesity. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2007;9:365–373.
  • Stapleton JA. Trial comes too late as psychiatric side effects end hope for rimonabant. Addiction. 2009;104:277–278.
  • Carroll KM. A cognitive-behavioral approach: Treating cocaine addiction. Vol 1. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1998.
  • Kadden R, Carroll KM, Donovan D, . Cognitive-behavioral coping skills therapy manual. Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health; 1994.
  • Monti PM, Kadden RM, Rohsenow DJ, Cooney NL, Abrams DB. Treating alcohol dependence: A coping skills training guide. 2nd ed. New York: The Guilford Press; 2002.
  • Marlatt GA. Part I. Relapse Prevention: General Overview. In: Marlatt GA, Gordon JR, eds. Relapse prevention: Maintenance strategies in the treatment of addictive behaviors. New York: The Guilford Press; 1985: 1–348.
  • Copeland J, Swift W, Roffman R, Stephens R. A randomized controlled trial of brief cognitive-behavioral interventions for cannabis use disorder. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2001;21:55–64; discussion 65–66
  • Carroll KM, Rounsaville BJ, Keller DS. Relapse prevention strategies for the treatment of cocaine abuse. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1991;17:249–265.
  • Carroll KM, Rounsaville BJ, Nich C, Gordon LT, Wirtz PW, Gawin F. One-year follow-up of psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for cocaine dependence. Delayed emergence of psychotherapy effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:989–997.
  • Carroll KM, Rounsaville BJ, Gordon LT, . Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for ambulatory cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:177–187.
  • Chaney EF, O’Leary MR, Marlatt GA. Skill training with alcoholics. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1978;46:1092–1104.
  • Larimer ME, Palmer RS, Marlatt GA. Relapse prevention. An overview of Marlatt’s cognitive-behavioral model. Alcohol Res Health. 1999;23:151–160.
  • Maude Griffin PM, Hohenstein JM, Humfleet GL, Reilly PM, Tusel DJ, Hall SM. Superior efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for urban crack cocaine abusers: main and matching effects. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66:832–837.
  • Fabricatore AN. Behavior therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy of obesity: is there a difference. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107:92–99.
  • Brownell KD, Heckerman CL, Westlake RJ. The behavioral control of obesity: a descriptive analysis of a large-scale program. J Clin Psychol. 1979;35:864–869.
  • Brownell KD, Cohen LR. Adherence to dietary regimens. 2: Components of effective interventions. Behav Med. 1995;20:155–164.
  • Brownell KD, Cohen LR. Adherence to dietary regimens. 1: An overview of research. Behav Med. 1995;20:149–154.
  • KD Brownell. Diet, exercise and behavioural intervention: the nonpharmacological approach. Eur J Clin Invest. Sep 1998;28(Suppl 2), 19–21; discussion 22.
  • Ashley JM, St Jeor ST, Schrage JP, . Weight control in the physician’s office. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:1599–1604.
  • Brownell KD, Stunkard AJ, McKeon PE. Weight reduction at the work site: a promise partially fulfilled. Am J Psychiatry. 1985;142:47–52.
  • Gardner CD, Kiazand A, Alhassan S, . Comparison of the Atkins, Zone, Ornish, and LEARN diets for change in weight and related risk factors among overweight premenopausal women: the A TO Z Weight Loss Study: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2007;297:969–977.
  • Marchesini G, Natale S, Chierici S, . Effects of cognitive-behavioural therapy on health-related quality of life in obese subjects with and without binge eating disorder. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2002;26:1261–1267.
  • Alcoholics Anonymous Big Book. 4th ed. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc.; 2002.
  • Weiner S. The addiction of overeating: self-help groups as treatment models. J Clin Psychol. 1998;54:163–167.
  • Higgins ST, Budney AJ, Bickel WK, Foerg FE, Donham R, Badger GJ. Incentives improve outcome in outpatient behavioral treatment of cocaine dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1994;51:568–576.
  • Higgins ST, Wong CJ, Badger GJ, Ogden DE, Dantona RL. Contingent reinforcement increases cocaine abstinence during outpatient treatment and 1 year of follow-up. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68:64–72.
  • Lussier JP, Heil SH, Mongeon JA, Badger GJ, Higgins ST. A meta-analysis of voucher-based reinforcement therapy for substance use disorders. Addiction. 2006;101:192–203.
  • Petry NM, Simcic FJr.. Recent advances in the dissemination of contingency management techniques: clinical and research perspectives. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2002;23:81–86.
  • Peirce JM, Petry NM, Stitzer ML, . Effects of lower-cost incentives on stimulant abstinence in methadone maintenance treatment: a National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:201–208.
  • Petry NM, Martin B, Cooney JL, Kranzler HR. Give them prizes, and they will come: contingency management for treatment of alcohol dependence. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2000;68:250–257.
  • Petry NM, Martin B, Finocche C. Contingency management in group treatment: a demonstration project in an HIV drop-in center. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2001;21:89–96.
  • Petry NM, Martin B. Low-cost contingency management for treating cocaine- and opioid-abusing methadone patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2002;70:398–405.
  • Petry NM, Alessi SM, Marx J, Austin M, Tardif M. Vouchers versus prizes: contingency management treatment of substance abusers in community settings. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005;73:1005–1014.
  • Petry NM, Peirce JM, Stitzer ML, . Effect of prize-based incentives on outcomes in stimulant abusers in outpatient psychosocial treatment programs: a national drug abuse treatment clinical trials network study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:1148–1156.
  • Petry NM, Alessi SM, Hanson T. Contingency management improves abstinence and quality of life in cocaine abusers. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007;75:307–315.
  • Petry NM, Alessi SM, Hanson T, Sierra S. Randomized trial of contingent prizes versus vouchers in cocaine-using methadone patients. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2007;75:983–991.
  • Epstein LH, Masek BJ, Marshall WR. A nutritionally based school program for control of eating in obese children. Behavior Therapy. 1978;9:766–778.
  • Jason LA, Brackshaw E. Access to TV contingent on physical activity: effects on reducing TV-viewing and body-weight. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 1999;30:145–151.
  • Hyman SE. The neurobiology of addiction: implications for voluntary control of behavior. Am J Bioeth. 2007;7:8–11.
  • Oliver JE. Fat Politics: The real story behind America’s obesity epidemic. New York: Oxford University Press; 2005.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.