Work-Related Stress and Posttraumatic Stress in Emergency Medical Services

References

• Regehr C, Goldberg G, Hughes J. Exposure to human tragedy, empathy, and trauma in ambulance paramedics. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2002;72:505–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cydulka RK, Emerman CL, Shade B, Kubincanek J. Stress levels in EMS personnel: a national survey. Prehosp Disaster Med. 1997;12:136–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Ploeg E, Kleber RJ. Acute and chronic job stressors among ambulance personnel: predictors of health symptoms. Occup Environ Med. 2003;60:40–6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson PD, Huang DT, Fairbanks RJ, Simeone S, Weaver M, Wang HE. Variation in emergency medical services workplace safety culture. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2010;14:448–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isenberg DL, Van Gelder CM. Occupational illness and injury in prehospital care personnel. In: Greenberg MI, ed. Occupational Emergency Medicine. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011, pp 162–74.
   Google Scholar
• Sterud T, Ekeberg O, Hem E. Health status in the ambulance services: a systematic review. BMC Health Serv Res. 2006; 6:82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boudreaux E, Mandry C. The effects of stressors on emergency medical technicians (part II): a critical review of the literature, and a call for further research. Prehosp Disaster Med. 1996;11:302–7; discussion 307-8.
   Google Scholar
• Pearlin LI. The sociological study of stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1989;30:241–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young KM, Cooper CL. Occupational stress in the ambulance service: a diagnostic study. Health Manpower Manage. 1997;23(4–5):140–7.
   Google Scholar
• Beaton RD, Murphy S, Pike K. Work and nonwork stressors, negative affective states and pain complaints among firefighters and paramedics. Int J Stress Manage. 1996;3:223–37.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regehr C, Millar D. Situation critical: high demand, low control, and low support in paramedic organizations. Traumatology. 2007;13:49–58.
   Google Scholar
• Sterud T, Hem E, Lau B, Ekeberg O. A comparison of general and ambulance specific stressors: predictors of job satisfaction and health problems in a nationwide one-year follow-up study of Norwegian ambulance personnel. J Occup Med Toxicol. 2011;6(1):10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander DA, Klein S. Ambulance personnel and critical incidents: impact of accident and emergency work on mental health and emotional well-being. Br J Psychiatry. 2001;178:76–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beaton RD, Murphy SA, Pike KC, Corneil W. Social support and network conflict in firefighters and paramedics. West J Nurs Res. 1997;19:297–313.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett P, Williams Y, Page N, Hood K, Woollard M, Vetter N. Associations between organizational and incident factors and emotional distress in emergency ambulance personnel. Br J Clin Psychol. 2005;44:215–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clohessy S, Ehlers A. PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories and coping in ambulance service workers. Br J Clin Psychol. 1999;38:251–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell JT. When disaster strikes…the critical incident stress debriefing process. JEMS. 1983;8(1):36–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marmar CR, Weiss DS, Metzler TJ, Delucchi KL, Best SR, Wentworth KA. Longitudinal course and predictors of continuing distress following critical incident exposure in emergency services personnel. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1999;187:15–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra S, Goebert D, Char E, Dukes P, Ahmed I. Trauma exposure and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in emergency medical services personnel in Hawaii. Emerg Med J. 2010;27:708–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallagher S, McGilloway S. Experience of critical incident stress among ambulance service staff and relationship to psychological symptoms. Int J Emerg Ment Health. 2009;11:235–48.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Donnelly EA, Siebert DC. Occupational risk factors in the emergency medical services. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2009;24:428–35.
   Google Scholar
• National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians. Committed to EMS: Now and in the Future: Annual Report. Columbus, OH: NREMT, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Brown WE, Dickison PD, Misselbeck WJA, Levine R. Longitudinal Emergency Medical Technician Attribute and Demographic Study (LEADS): an interim report. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2002;6:433–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fiellin DA, Reid MC, O'Connor PG. Screening for alcohol problems in primary care: a systematic review Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:1977–89.
   Google Scholar
• Reinert DF, Allen JP. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): a review of recent research. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2002;26:272–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bohn MJ, Babor TF, Kranzler HR. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): validation of a screening instrument for use in medical settings. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 1995;56:423–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connors GJ, Volk RJ. Self report screening for alcohol problems among adults. In: Allen JP, Wilson VB (eds). Assessing Alcohol Problems: A Guide for Clinicans and Researchers. 2nd ed. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes for Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2003, pp 21–35.
   Google Scholar
• Babour TF, Higgins-Biddle JC, Saunders JB, Monteiro MG. AUDIT: The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines for Use in Primary Care. 2nd ed. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Reinert DF, Allen JP. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test: an update on research findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007;31:185–99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davey JD, Obst PL, Sheehan MC. Developing a profile of alcohol consumption patterns of police officers in a large scale sample of an Australian police service. Eur Addict Res. 2000;6:205–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davey JD, Obst PL, Sheehan MC. It goes with the job: officers’ insights into the impact of stress and culture on alcohol consumption within the policing occupation Drugs Educ Prev Policy. 2001;8:141–9.
   Google Scholar
• Sterud T, Erlend H, Ekeberg O, Lau B. Occupational stress and alcohol use: a study of two nationwide samples of operational police and ambulance personnel in Norway. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2007;68:896–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Violanti JM. Predictors of police suicide ideation. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2004;34:277–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers FW, Litz BT, Herman DS, Huska JA, Keane TM. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Presented at: International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies annual meeting, San Antonio, TX, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Sutker PB, Davis JM, Uddo M, Ditta SR. War zone stress, personal resources, and PTSD in Persian Gulf War returnees. J Abnorm Psychol. 1995;104:444–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson KE, Vasterling JJ, Benotsch EG, Early symptom predictors of chronic distress in Gulf War veterans. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2004;192:146–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutker PB, Uddo M, Brailey K, Allain AN, Errera P. Psychological symptoms and psychiatric diagnoses in Operation Desert Storm troops serving graves registration duty. J Trauma Stress. 1994;7:159–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asmundson GJG, Stein MB, Mccreary DR. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms influence health status of deployed peacekeepers and nondeployed military personnel. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2002;190:807–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCreary DR, Thompson MM. Development of two reliable and valid measures of stressors in policing: the Operational and Organizational Police Stress Questionnaires. Int J Stress Manage. 2006;13:494–518.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss DS, Brunet A, Best SR, Frequency and severity approaches to indexing exposure to trauma: the Critical Incident History Questionnaire for police officers. J Trauma Stress. 2010;23:734–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donnelly EA. Occupationally related stress exposures and stress reactions in the emergency medical services [dissertation]. Tallahassee, FL: College of Social Work, Florida State University, 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Turner RJ, Wheaton B. Checklist measurement of stressful life events. In: Gordon L, Cohen S, Kessler R, eds. Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp 59–79.
   Google Scholar
• Hu L, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling. 1999;6(1):1–55.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bentler PM, Bonett DG. Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychol Bull. 1980;88:588–606.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiger JH. Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modeling. Pers Indiv Differ. 2007;42:893–8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronbach LJ. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika. 1951;16:297–334.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunnally JC, Bernstein IH. Psychometric Theory. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians. Demographic Summary: Longitudinal Emergency Medical Technician Attributes and Demographics Study. Columbus, OH: NREMT, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Brown WE, Dawson DA, Levine R. Compensation, benefits, and satisfaction: the Longitudinal Emergency Medical Technician Attributes and Demographic Study (LEADS) project. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2003;7:357–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Studnek JR, Fernandez AR. Characteristics of emergency medical technicians involved in ambulance crashes. Prehosp Disaster Med. 2008;23:432–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown SL, Hook JV, Glick JE. Generational differences in cohabitation and marriage in the US. Popul Res Policy Rev. 2008;27:531–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1983;24:385–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowery K, Stokes MA. Role of peer support and emotional expression on posttraumatic stress disorder in student paramedics. J Trauma Stress. 2005;18:171–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett P, Williams Y, Page N, Hood K, Woollard M. Levels of mental health problems among UK emergency ambulance workers. Emerg Med J. 2004;21:235–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:593–602.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler RC, Sonnega A, Bromet E, Hughes M, Nelson CB. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52:1048–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Field CA, Claassen CA, O'Keefe G. Association of alcohol use and other high-risk behaviors among trauma patients. J Trauma. 2001;50:13–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spain DA, Boaz PW, Davidson DJ, Miller FB, Carrillo EH, Richardson JD. Risk-taking behaviors among adolescent trauma patients. J Trauma. 1997;43:423–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swahn MH, Simon TR, Hammig BJ, Guerrero JL. Alcohol-consumption behaviors and risk for physical fighting and injuries among adolescent drinkers. Addict Behav. 2004;29:959–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart SH. Alcohol abuse in individuals exposed to trauma: a critical review. Psychol Bull. 1996;120:83–112.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pihl RO, Stewart SH. Substance abuse and behavioral pathology: a commentary. Annu Rev Addict Res Treatment. 1991;1:153–6.
   Google Scholar
• Maunder RG, Halpern J, Schwartz B, Gurevich M. Symptoms and responses to critical incidents in paramedics who have experienced childhood abuse and neglect. Emerg Med J. 2011; Mar 21 (Epub ahead of print).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otte C, Neylan TC, Pole N, Association between childhood trauma and catecholamine response to psychological stress in police academy recruits. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(1):27–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nederhof AJ. Methods of coping with social desirability bias: a review. Eur J Soc Psychol. 1984;15:263–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulhus DL. Measurement and control of response bias. In: Robinson JP, Shaver PR, Wrightsman LS (eds). Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes. New York: Academic Press, 1991, pp 17–59.
   Google Scholar
• Coughlin SS. Recall bias in epidemiologic studies. J Clin Epidemiol. 1990;43:1431–2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar