471
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Overview of treatment options for invasive fungal infections

, , , &
Pages 561-580 | Received 22 Nov 2010, Accepted 31 Jan 2011, Published online: 03 Mar 2011

References

  • Zilberberg MD, Shorr AF, Kollef MH. Secular trends in candidemia-related hospitalization in the United States, 2000–2005. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008; 29:978–980.
  • Horn DL, Neofytos D, Anaissie EJ, . Epidemiology and outcomes of candidemia in 2019 patients: data from the prospective antifungal therapy alliance registry. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48:1695–1703.
  • Chaudhuri HK, Montag BJ, Heidelberger C. Studies on fluorinated pyrimidines. III. The metabolism of 5-fluorouracil-2-C14 and 5-fluoroorotic-2-C14 acid in vivo. Cancer Res 1958; 18:318–328.
  • Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, . Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50: 291–322.
  • Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, . Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 503–535.
  • Mauceri AA, Cullen SI, Vandevelde AG, Johnson JE, III. Flucytosine. An effective oral treatment for chromomycosis. Arch Dermatol 1974; 109: 873–876.
  • Polak A, Scholer HJ. Mode of action of 5-fluorocytosine and mechanisms of resistance. Chemotherapy 1975; 21: 113–130.
  • Waldorf AR, Polak A. Mechanisms of action of 5-fluorocytosine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1983; 23: 79–85.
  • Polak A. Mode of action of 5-fluorocytosine and 5-fluorouracil in dematiaceous fungi. Sabouraudia 1983; 21: 15–25.
  • Bicanic T, Wood R, Meintjes G, . High-dose amphotericin B with flucytosine for the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in HIV-infected patients: a randomized trial. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 123–130.
  • Brouwer AE, Rajanuwong A, Chierakul W, . Combination antifungal therapies for HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a randomised trial. Lancet 2004; 363: 1764–1767.
  • van der Horst CM, Saag MS, Cloud GA, . Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group and AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 15–21.
  • Bennett JE, Dismukes WE, Duma RJ, . A comparison of amphotericin B alone and combined with flucytosine in the treatment of cryptoccal meningitis. N Engl J Med 1979; 301: 126–131.
  • Smego RA Jr, Perfect JR, Durack DT. Combined therapy with amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine for Candida meningitis. Rev Infect Dis 1984; 6: 791–801.
  • Struijk DG, Krediet RT, Boeschoten EW, Rietra PJ, Arisz L. Antifungal treatment of Candida peritonitis in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 1987; 9: 66–70.
  • Cuenca-Estrella M. Combinations of antifungal agents in therapy – what value are they? J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 54: 854–869.
  • Johnson MD, MacDougall C, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Perfect JR, Rex JH. Combination antifungal therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 693–715.
  • Bava AJ, Negroni R. Comparative study of six antifungal treatments in an experimental model of murine cryptococcosis. Eur J Epidemiol 1992; 8: 422–426.
  • Chen HH, Liushih RN, Hsieh WC. Combined in vitro activity of amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine against Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida albicans. Zhonghua Min Guo Wei Sheng Wu Ji Mian Yi Xue Za Zhi 1982; 15: 106–112.
  • Hamilton JD, Elliott DM. Combined activity of amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine against Cryptococcus neoformansin vitro and in vivo in mice. J Infect Dis 1975; 131: 129–137.
  • Kujath P, Lerch K, Kochendorfer P, Boos C. Comparative study of the efficacy of fluconazole versus amphotericin B/flucytosine in surgical patients with systemic mycoses. Infection 1993; 21: 376–382.
  • Lewis RE, Diekema DJ, Messer SA, Pfaller MA, Klepser ME. Comparison of Etest, chequerboard dilution and time-kill studies for the detection of synergy or antagonism between antifungal agents tested against Candida species. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 49: 345–351.
  • Martin E, Maier F, Bhakdi S. Antagonistic effects of fluconazole and 5-fluorocytosine on candidacidal action of amphotericin B in human serum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38: 1331–1338.
  • Rabinovich S, Shaw BD, Bryant T, Donta ST. Effect of 5-fluorocytosine and amphotericin B on Candida albicans infection in mice. J Infect Dis 1974; 130: 28–31.
  • Andes D, van OM. In vivo characterization of the pharmacodynamics of flucytosine in a neutropenic murine disseminated candidiasis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44: 938–942.
  • Turnidge JD, Gudmundsson S, Vogelman B, Craig WA. The postantibiotic effect of antifungal agents against common pathogenic yeasts. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994; 34: 83–92.
  • Polak A. 5-Fluorocytosine – current status with special references to mode of action and drug resistance. Contrib Microbiol Immunol 1977; 4: 158–167.
  • Hope WW, Tabernero L, Denning DW, Anderson MJ. Molecular mechanisms of primary resistance to flucytosine in Candida albicans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 4377–4386.
  • Fasoli M, Kerridge D. Isolation and characterization of fluoropyrimidine-resistant mutants in two Candida species. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988; 544: 260–263.
  • Drew RH, Townsend M. Antifungal drug resistance: clinical relevance and impact of antifungal drug use. Curr Fungal Infect Rep 2010; 4: 129–136.
  • St-Germain G, Laverdiere M, Pelletier R, . Epidemiology and antifungal susceptibility of bloodstream Candida isolates in Quebec: report on 453 cases between 2003 and 2005. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2008; 19: 55–62.
  • Messer SA, Moet GJ, Kirby JT, Jones RN. Activity of contemporary antifungal agents, including the novel echinocandin anidulafungin, tested against Candida spp., Cryptococcus spp., and Aspergillus spp.: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2006 to 2007). J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 1942–1946.
  • Cutler RE, Blair AD, Kelly MR. Flucytosine kinetics in subjects with normal and impaired renal function. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1978; 24: 333–342.
  • Valeant Pharmaceuticals International. Flucytosine Package Insert. Valeant Pharmaceuticals International 2007 March 1. Accessed 16 July 2010 from the website: http://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?id=5117.
  • Polak A. Pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B and flucytosine. Postgrad Med J 1979; 55: 667–670.
  • Dannaoui E, Abdul M, Arpin M, . Results obtained with various antifungal susceptibility testing methods do not predict early clinical outcome in patients with cryptococcosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 2464–2470.
  • Schonebeck J, Polak A, Fernex M, Scholer HJ. Pharmacokinetic studies on the oral antimycotic agent 5-fluorocytosine in individuals with normal and impaired kidney function. Chemotherapy 1973; 18: 321–336.
  • Daneshmend TK, Warnock DW. Clinical pharmacokinetics of systemic antifungal drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet 1983; 8: 17–42.
  • Block ER, Bennett JE, Livoti LG, . Flucytosine and amphotericin B: hemodialysis effects on the plasma concentration and clearance. Studies in man. Ann Intern Med 1974; 80: 613–617.
  • Thompson GR III, Wiederhold NP, Fothergill AW, . Antifungal susceptibilities among different serotypes of Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 309–311.
  • Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Boyken L, . Global trends in the antifungal susceptibility of Cryptococcus neoformans (1990 to 2004). J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 2163–2167.
  • Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute WP2. CLSI Reference Method for BrothDilution Antifungal Susceptibility Testing of Yeasts, document M27-A3, 3rd. Wayne, IN: CLSI, 2008.
  • Pfaller MA, Boyken L, Hollis RJ, . In vitro activities of anidulafungin against more than 2,500 clinical isolates of Candida spp., including 315 isolates resistant to fluconazole. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 5425–5427.
  • Benson JM, Nahata MC. Clinical use of systemic antifungal agents. Clin Pharm 1988; 7: 424–438.
  • Vermes A, van Der SH, Guchelaar HJ. Flucytosine: correlation between toxicity and pharmacokinetic parameters. Chemotherapy 2000; 46: 86–94.
  • Stamm AM, Diasio RB, Dismukes WE, . Toxicity of amphotericin B plus flucytosine in 194 patients with cryptococcal meningitis. Am J Med 1987; 83: 236–242.
  • Meyer RD, Axelrod JL. Fatal aplastic anemia resulting from flucytosine. JAMA 2010; 228: 1573.
  • Hiddemann W, Essink ME, Fegeler W, . Antifungal treatment by amphotericin B and 5-fluorocytosine delays the recovery of normal hematopoietic cells after intensive cytostatic therapy for acute myeloid leukemia. Cancer 1991; 68: 9–14.
  • Pasqualotto AC, Howard SJ, Moore CB, Denning DW. Flucytosine therapeutic monitoring: 15 years experience from the UK. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007; 59: 791–793.
  • Saag MS, Powderly WG, Cloud GA, . Comparison of amphotericin B with fluconazole in the treatment of acute AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. The NIAID Mycoses Study Group and the AIDS Clinical Trials Group. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 83–89.
  • Ellis ME, Al-Abdely H, Sandridge A, Greer W, Ventura W. Fungal endocarditis: evidence in the world literature, 1965-1995. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 50–62.
  • Schmid S, Martenet AC, Oelz O. Candida endophthalmitis: clinical presentation, treatment and outcome in 23 patients. Infection 1991; 19: 21–24.
  • Tiphine M, Letscher-Bru V, Herbrecht R. Amphotericin B and its new formulations: pharmacologic characteristics, clinical efficacy, and tolerability. Transpl Infect Dis 1999; 1: 273–283.
  • Brajtburg J, Bolard J. Carrier effects on biological activity of amphotericin B. Clin Microbiol Rev 1996; 9: 512–531.
  • Vertut-Croquin A, Bolard J, Gary-Bobo CM. Transfer of amphotericin B from gel state vesicles to mycoplasma cells: biphasic action on potassium transport and permeability. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985; 28: 167–171.
  • Three Rivers Pharmaceuticals. Amphotec Package Insert. Three Rivers Pharmaceuticals 2009 January 1. Accessed 15 July 2010 from the website: http://www.3riverspharma.com/docs/amphotec_pi.pdf.
  • X-Gen Pharmaceuticals. Amphotericin B deoxycholate Package Insert. X-Gen Pharmaceuticals 2009 January 1. Accessed 17 July 2010 from the website: http://www.xgen.us/Injectables/Amphotericin%20B/Amphotericin_files/insert/Amphotericin_pi.pdf.
  • Brajtburg J, Elberg S, Schwartz DR, . Involvement of oxidative damage in erythrocyte lysis induced by amphotericin B. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1985; 27: 172–176.
  • Surarit R, Shepherd MG. The effects of azole and polyene antifungals on the plasma membrane enzymes of Candida albicans. J Med Vet Mycol 1987; 25: 403–413.
  • Di BG, Spedicato I, Picciani C, D'Antonio D, Piccolomini R. In vitro pharmacodynamic characteristics of amphotericin B, caspofungin, fluconazole, and voriconazole against bloodstream isolates of infrequent Candida species from patients with hematologic malignancies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 4453–4456.
  • Andes D, Stamsted T, Conklin R. Pharmacodynamics of amphotericin B in a neutropenic-mouse disseminated-candidiasis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 922–926.
  • Klepser ME, Wolfe EJ, Jones RN, Nightingale CH, Pfaller MA. Antifungal pharmacodynamic characteristics of fluconazole and amphotericin B tested against Candida albicans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 1392–1395.
  • Vitale RG, Meis JF, Mouton JW, Verweij PE. Evaluation of the post-antifungal effect (PAFE) of amphotericin B and nystatin against 30 zygomycetes using two different media. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 52: 65–70.
  • Sokol-Anderson ML, Brajtburg J, Medoff G. Amphotericin B-induced oxidative damage and killing of Candida albicans. J Infect Dis 1986; 154: 76–83.
  • Young LY, Hull CM, Heitman J. Disruption of ergosterol biosynthesis confers resistance to amphotericin B in Candida lusitaniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 2717–2724.
  • Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Boyken L, . Geographic variation in the susceptibilities of invasive isolates of Candida glabrata to seven systemically active antifungal agents: a global assessment from the ARTEMIS antifungal surveillance program conducted in 2001 and 2002. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 3142–3146.
  • Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Hollis RJ. Strain delineation and antifungal susceptibilities of epidemiologically related and unrelated isolates of Candida lusitaniae. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1994; 20: 127–133.
  • Robbie G, Wu TC, Chiou WL. Poor and unusually prolonged oral absorption of amphotericin B in rats. Pharm Res 1999; 16: 455–458.
  • Christiansen KJ, Bernard EM, Gold JW, Armstrong D. Distribution and activity of amphotericin B in humans. J Infect Dis 1985; 152: 1037–1043.
  • Moen MD, Lyseng-Williamson KA, Scott LJ. Liposomal amphotericin B: a review of its use as empirical therapy in febrile neutropenia and in the treatment of invasive fungal infections. Drugs 2009; 69: 361–392.
  • dler-Moore JP, Proffitt RT. Amphotericin B lipid preparations: what are the differences? Clin Microbiol Infect 2008; 14 (Suppl. 4): 25–36.
  • Wong-Beringer A, Jacobs RA, Guglielmo BJ. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B: Clinical efficacy and toxicities. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27: 603–618.
  • Enzon Pharmaceuticals. Abelcet Package insert. Enzon Pharmaceuticals 2002. Accessed 16 November 2010 from the website: http://www.abelcet.com/
  • Astellas Pharma US. Ambisome Package Insert. Astellas 2005. Accessed 16 November 2010 from the website: http://www.astellas.us/docs/ambisome.pdf
  • Atkinson AJ Jr, Bennett JE. Amphotericin B pharmacokinetics in humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1978; 13: 271–276.
  • Barchiesi F, Arzeni D, Compagnucci P, . In vitro activity of five antifungal agents against clinical isolates of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Med Mycol 1998; 36: 437–440.
  • Tzatzarakis MN, Tsatsakis AM, Charvalos E, Vakalounakis D. Comparison of in vitro activities of amphotericin, clotrimazole, econazole, miconazole, and nystatin against Fusarium oxysporum. J Environ Sci Health B 2001; 36: 331–340.
  • Lewis RE, Wiederhold NP, Klepser ME. In vitro pharmacodynamics of amphotericin B, itraconazole, and voriconazole against Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Scedosporium spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 945–951.
  • Kantarcioglu AS, Yucel A. In-vitro activities of terbinafine, itraconazole and amphotericin B against Aspergillus and Cladosporium species. J Chemother 2002; 14: 562–527.
  • Lacroix C, de Chauvin MF. In vitro activity of amphotericin B, itraconazole, voriconazole, posaconazole, caspofungin and terbinafine against Scytalidium dimidiatum and Scytalidium hyalinum clinical isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 835–837.
  • Walsh TJ, Melcher GP, Rinaldi MG, . Trichosporon beigelii, an emerging pathogen resistant to amphotericin B. J Clin Microbiol 1990; 28: 1616–1622.
  • Blum G, Perkhofer S, Haas H, . Potential basis for amphotericin B resistance in Aspergillus terreus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52: 1553–1555.
  • Espinel-Ingroff A, Johnson E, Hockey H, Troke P. Activities of voriconazole, itraconazole and amphotericin B in vitro against 590 moulds from 323 patients in the voriconazole Phase III clinical studies. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 616–620.
  • Torres-Narbona M, Guinea J, Martinez-Alarcon J, Pelaez T, Bouza E. In vitro activities of amphotericin B, caspofungin, itraconazole, posaconazole, and voriconazole against 45 clinical isolates of zygomycetes: comparison of CLSI M38-A, Sensititre YeastOne, and the Etest. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 1126–1129.
  • Gallis HA, Drew RH, Pickard WW. Amphotericin B: 30 years of clinical experience. Rev Infect Dis 1990; 12: 308–329.
  • Goodwin SD, Cleary JD, Walawander CA, Taylor JW, Grasela TH Jr. Pretreatment regimens for adverse events related to infusion of amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 755–761.
  • Paterson DL, David K, Mrsic M, . Pre-medication practices and incidence of infusion-related reactions in patients receiving AMPHOTEC: data from the Patient Registry of Amphotericin B Cholesteryl Sulfate Complex for Injection Clinical Tolerability (PRoACT) registry. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 62: 1392–1400.
  • Gales MA, Gales BJ. Rapid infusion of amphotericin B in dextrose. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 523–529.
  • Llanos A, Cieza J, Bernardo J, . Effect of salt supplementation on amphotericin B nephrotoxicity. Kidney Int 1991; 40: 302–308.
  • Nicholl TA, Nimmo CR, Shepherd JD, Phillips P, Jewesson PJ. Amphotericin B infusion-related toxicity: comparison of two- and four-hour infusions. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 1081–1087.
  • Janknegt R, de MS, Bakker-Woudenberg IA, Crommelin DJ. Liposomal and lipid formulations of amphotericin B. Clinical pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacokinet 1992; 23: 279–291.
  • Herbrecht R. Safety of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997; 16: 74–80.
  • Walsh TJ, Finberg RW, Arndt C, . Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 764–771.
  • Lister J. Amphotericin B Lipid Complex (Abelcet) in the treatment of invasive mycoses: the North American experience. Eur J Haematol Suppl 1996; 57: 18–23.
  • Wingard JR, White MH, Anaissie E, . A randomized, double-blind comparative trial evaluating the safety of liposomal amphotericin B versus amphotericin B lipid complex in the empirical treatment of febrile neutropenia. L Amph/ABLC Collaborative Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 31: 1155–1163.
  • Herbrecht R, Letscher V, Andres E, Cavalier A. Safety and efficacy of amphotericin B colloidal dispersion. An overview. Chemotherapy 1999; 45 (Suppl. 1): 67–76.
  • Gurwith M, Mamelok R, Pietrelli L, Du MC. Renal sparing by amphotericin B colloidal dispersion: clinical experience in 572 patients. Chemotherapy 1999; 45 (Suppl. 1): 39–47.
  • Walsh TJ, Anaissie EJ, Denning DW, . Treatment of aspergillosis: clinical practice guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 327–360.
  • Chapman SW, Dismukes WE, Proia LA, . Clinical practice guidelines for the management of blastomycosis: 2008 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 1801–1812.
  • Kauffman CA, Bustamante B, Chapman SW, Pappas PG. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of sporotrichosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 1255–1265.
  • Nussbaum ES, Hall WA. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: changing patterns of disease. Surg Neurol 1994; 41: 152–156.
  • Galgiani JN, Ampel NM, Blair JE, . Coccidioidomycosis. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1217–1223.
  • Wheat LJ, Freifeld AG, Kleiman MB, . Clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 807–825.
  • Dismukes WE, Cloud G, Gallis HA, . Treatment of cryptococcal meningitis with combination amphotericin B and flucytosine for four as compared with six weeks. N Engl J Med 1987; 371: 334–341.
  • Dromer F, Bernede-Bauduin C, Guillemot D, Lortholary O. Major role for amphotericin B-flucytosine combination in severe cryptococcosis. PLoS One 2008; 3: e2870.
  • Sharkey PK, Graybill JR, Johnson ES, . Amphotericin B lipid complex compared with amphotericin B in the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 315–321.
  • Baddour LM, Perfect JR, Ostrosky-Zeichner L. Successful use of amphotericin B lipid complex in the treatment of cryptococcosis. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40 (Suppl. 6): S409–413.
  • Coker RJ, Viviani M, Gazzard BG, . Treatment of cryptococcosis with liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) in 23 patients with AIDS. AIDS 1993; 7: 829–835.
  • Hamill RJ, Sobel JD, El-Sadr W, . Comparison of 2 doses of liposomal amphotericin B and conventional amphotericin B deoxycholate for treatment of AIDS-associated acute cryptococcal meningitis: a randomized, double-blind clinical trial of efficacy and safety. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51: 225–232.
  • Shoham S, Cover C, Donegan N, Fulnecky E, Kumar P. Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis at 2 hospitals in Washington, D.C.: adherence of health care providers to published practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 477–479.
  • Anaissie EJ, Darouiche RO, bi-Said D, . Management of invasive candidal infections: results of a prospective, randomized, multicenter study of fluconazole versus amphotericin B and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 23: 964–972.
  • Phillips P, Shafran S, Garber G, . Multicenter randomized trial of fluconazole versus amphotericin B for treatment of candidemia in non-neutropenic patients. Canadian Candidemia Study Group. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997; 16: 337–345.
  • Rex JH, Bennett JE, Sugar AM, . A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia. Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1325–1330.
  • Gafter-Gvili A, Vidal L, Goldberg E, Leibovici L, Paul M. Treatment of invasive candidal infections: systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc 2008; 83: 1011–1021.
  • Herbrecht R, Denning DW, Patterson TF, . Voriconazole versus amphotericin B for primary therapy of invasive aspergillosis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 408–415.
  • Walsh TJ, Teppler H, Donowitz GR, . Caspofungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for empirical antifungal therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1391–1402.
  • Ellis M, Bernsen R, li-Zadeh H, . A safety and feasibility study comparing an intermittent high dose with a daily standard dose of liposomal amphotericin B for persistent neutropenic fever. J Med Microbiol 2009; 58: 1474–1485.
  • Johnson PC, Wheat LJ, Cloud GA, . Safety and efficacy of liposomal amphotericin B compared with conventional amphotericin B for induction therapy of histoplasmosis in patients with AIDS. Ann Intern Med 2002; 137: 105–109.
  • Petit N, Parola P, Dhiver C, Gastaut JA. Efficacy and tolerance of amphotericin B in a lipid emulsion in the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in AIDS patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 38: 154–157.
  • Moore EM, Lockwood DN. Treatment of visceral leishmaniasis. J Glob Infect Dis 2010; 2: 151–158.
  • Parker JD, Doto IL, Tosh FE. A decade of experience with blastomycosis and its treatment with amphotericin B. A National Communicable Disease Center Cooperative Mycoses Study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1969; 99: 895–902.
  • Bradsher RW. Histoplasmosis and blastomycosis. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22 (Suppl. 2): S102–111.
  • Reichenspurner H, Gamberg P, Nitschke M, . Significant reduction in the number of fungal infections after lung-, heart-lung, and heart transplantation using aerosolized amphotericin B prophylaxis. Transplant Proc 1997; 29: 627–628.
  • Rijnders BJ, Cornelissen JJ, Slobbe L, . Aerosolized liposomal amphotericin B for the prevention of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis during prolonged neutropenia: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 1401–1408.
  • Monforte V, Roman A, Gavalda J. Nebulized amphotercin B prophylaxis for Aspergillus infection in lung transplantation: Study of risk factors. J Heart Lung Transplant 2001; 20: 1274–1281.
  • Schwartz S, Behre G, Heinemann V, . Aerosolized amphotericin B inhalations as prophylaxis of invasive Aspergillus infections during prolonged neutropenia: results of a prospective randomized multicenter trial. Blood 1999; 93: 3654–3661.
  • Palmer SM, Perfect JR, Howell DN, . Candidal anastomotic infection in lung transplant recipients: successful treatment with a combination of systemic and inhaled antifungal agents. J Heart Lung Transplant 1998; 17: 1029–1033.
  • Laoudi Y, Paolini JB, Grimfed A, Just J. Nebulised corticosteroid and amphotericin B: an alternative treatment for ABPA? Eur Respir J 2008; 31: 908–909.
  • Purcell IF, Corris PA. Use of nebulised liposomal amphotericin B in the treatment of Aspergillus fumigatus empyema. Thorax 1995; 50: 1321–1323.
  • Castagnola E, Moresco L, Cappelli B, . Nebulized liposomal amphotericin B and combined systemic antifungal therapy for the treatment of severe pulmonary aspergillosis after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant for a fatal mitochondrial disorder. J Chemother 2007; 19: 339–342.
  • Arthur R, Drew RH, Perfect J. Novel modes of antifungal drug administration. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2004; 13: 903–932.
  • Conneally E, Cafferkey MT, Daly PA, Keane CT, McCann SR. Nebulized amphotericin B as prophylaxis against invasive aspergillosis in granulocytopenic patients. Bone Marrow Transplant 1990; 5: 403–406.
  • De Laurenzi A, Matteocci A, Lanti A, . Amphotericin B prophylaxis against invasive fungal infections in neutropenic patients: a single center experience from 1980 to 1995. Infection 1996; 24: 361–366.
  • Calvo V, Borro JM, Morales P, . Antifungal prophylaxis during the early postoperative period of lung transplantation. Valencia Lung Transplant Group. Chest 1999; 115: 1301–1304.
  • Casey P, Garrett J, Eaton T. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis in a lung transplant patient successfully treated with nebulized amphotericin. J Heart Lung Transplant 2002; 21: 1237–1241.
  • Fan-Havard P, O'Donovan C, Smith SM, . Oral fluconazole versus amphotericin B bladder irrigation for treatment of candidal funguria. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21: 960–965.
  • Leu HS, Huang CT. Clearance of funguria with short-course antifungal regimens: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 1152–1157.
  • Jacobs LG, Skidmore EA, Freeman K, Lipschultz D, Fox N. Oral fluconazole compared with bladder irrigation with amphotericin B for treatment of fungal urinary tract infections in elderly patients. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 30–35.
  • Hsu CC, Chang RH. Two-day continuous bladder irrigation with amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 20: 1570–1571.
  • Wise GJ, Kozinn PJ, Goldberg P. Amphotericin B as a urologic irrigant in the management of noninvasive candiduria. J Urol 1982; 128: 82–84.
  • Trinh T, Simonian J, Vigil S, Chin D, Bidair M. Continuous versus intermittent bladder irrigation of amphotericin B for the treatment of candiduria. J Urol 1995; 154: 2032–2034.
  • Gnau T. Amphotericin B dosage for bladder irrigation. Am J Hosp Pharm 1992; 49: 2705–2706.
  • Murray L, Reed J. Red Book, 2010 Edn. Montvale, NJ: Thomson Reuters (Healthcare Inc.), 2010.
  • Fera MT, La CE, De SA. New triazoles and echinocandins: mode of action, in vitro activity and mechanisms of resistance. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2009; 7: 981–998.
  • Chapman SW, Sullivan DC, Cleary JD. In search of the holy grail of antifungal therapy. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc 2008; 119: 197–215.
  • Wilson DT, Drew RH, Perfect JR. Antifungal therapy for invasive fungal diseases in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: an update. Mycopathologia 2009; 168: 313–327.
  • Mohr J, Johnson M, Cooper T, Lewis JS, Ostrosky-Zeichner L. Current options in antifungal pharmacotherapy. Pharmacotherapy 2008; 28: 614–645.
  • Thompson GR, III, Lewis JS. Pharmacology and clinical use of voriconazole. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2010; 6: 83–94.
  • Dodds-Ashley E, Lewis R, Lewis J, Martin C, Andes D. Pharmacology of systemic antifungal agents. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: S28–39.
  • Pfizer. Diflucan (fluconazole) Package Insert. Pfizer Inc. 2010. Accessed 2 August 2010 from the website: http://www.pfizer.com/files/productsuspi_diflucan_pdf_2010
  • Janssen-Ortho Inc. Sporanox (itraconazole capsules) Package Insert. Janssen-Ortho Inc. 2010. Accessed 2 August 2010 from the website: http://www.janssen-ortho.com/JOI/pdf_files/SporanoxCaps_E_pdf_2010
  • Dodds-Ashley E. Management of drug and food interactions with azole antifungal agents in transplant recipients. Pharmacotherapy 2010; 30: 842–854.
  • Janssen-Ortho Inc. Sporanox (itraconazole oral solution) Package Insert. Janssen-Ortho Inc. 2010. Accessed 2 August 2010 from the website: http://www.janssen-ortho.com/JOI/pdf_files/Sporanox Oral_E_pdf_2010
  • Pfizer. Vfend (voriconazole) Package Insert. Pfizer Inc. 2010. Accessed 2 August 2010 from the website: http://www.pfizer.com/files/productsuspi_vfend_pdf_2010
  • Johnson LB, Kauffman CA. Voriconazole: a new triazole antifungal agent. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36: 630–637.
  • Courtney R, Wexler D, Radwanski E, Lim J, Laughlin M. Effect of food on the relative bioavailability of two oral formulations of posaconazole in healthy adults. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004; 57: 218–222.
  • Krishna G, Moton A, Ma L, Medlock MM, McLeod J. Pharmacokinetics and absorption of posaconazole oral suspension under various gastric conditions in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 958–966.
  • Ezzet F, Wexler D, Courtney R, . Oral bioavailability of posaconazole in fasted healthy subjects: comparison between three regimens and basis for clinical dosage recommendations. Clin Pharmacokinet 2005; 44: 211–220.
  • Lipp HP. Antifungal agents – clinical pharmacokinetics and drug interactions. Mycoses 2008; 51 (Suppl. 1): 7–18.
  • Schering Plough. Noxafil (posaconazole) Package Insert. Schering Plough 2009. Accessed 2 August 2010 from the website: http://www.spfiles.com/pinoxafil.pdf.2009
  • Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Gibbs DL, . Results from the ARTEMIS DISK Global Antifungal Surveillance Study, 1997 to 2007: a 10.5-year analysis of susceptibilities of Candida Species to fluconazole and voriconazole as determined by CLSI standardized disk diffusion. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 1366–1377.
  • Cronin S, Chandrasekar PH. Safety of triazole antifungal drugs in patients with cancer. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65: 410–416.
  • Goodwin ML, Drew RH. Antifungal serum concentration monitoring: an update. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 17–25.
  • Bruggemann RJ, Alffenaar JW, Blijlevens NM, . Clinical relevance of the pharmacokinetic interactions of azole antifungal drugs with other coadministered agents. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 1441–1458.
  • Barbaro G, Barbarini G, Calderon W, . Fluconazole versus itraconazole for candida esophagitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Candida esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 1169–1177.
  • de WN, Llanos-Cuentas A, Suleiman J, . A randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, dose-response study of micafungin compared with fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in HIV-positive patients. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 842–849.
  • Laine L, Dretler RH, Conteas CN, . Fluconazole compared with ketoconazole for the treatment of Candida esophagitis in AIDS. A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 655–660.
  • Villanueva A, Gotuzzo E, Arathoon EG, . A randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Am J Med 2002; 113: 294–299.
  • Krause DS, Simjee AE, van RC, . A randomized, double-blind trial of anidulafungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 770–775.
  • Wilcox CM, Darouiche RO, Laine L, . A randomized, double-blind comparison of itraconazole oral solution and fluconazole tablets in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. J Infect Dis 1997; 176: 227–232.
  • Reboli AC, Rotstein C, Pappas PG, . Anidulafungin versus fluconazole for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 2472–2482.
  • Goodman JL, Winston DJ, Greenfield RA, . A controlled trial of fluconazole to prevent fungal infections in patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 845–851.
  • Slavin MA, Osborne B, Adams R, . Efficacy and safety of fluconazole prophylaxis for fungal infections after marrow transplantation – a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. J Infect Dis 1995; 171: 1545–1552.
  • van Burik JA, Ratanatharathorn V, Stepan DE, . Micafungin versus fluconazole for prophylaxis against invasive fungal infections during neutropenia in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 1407–1416.
  • Larsen RA, Bozzette SA, Jones BE, . Fluconazole combined with flucytosine for treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 1994; 19: 741–745.
  • Milefchik E, Leal MA, Haubrich R, . Fluconazole alone or combined with flucytosine for the treatment of AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. Med Mycol 2008; 46: 393–395.
  • National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Clinical practice guidelines in oncology: prevention and treatment of cancer related infections. Accessed August 2, 2010 from the website: http://www oralcancerfoundation.org/treatment/pdf/infections-NCCN.pdf.2009
  • Hostetler JS, Denning DW, Stevens DA. US experience with itraconazole in Aspergillus, Cryptococcus and Histoplasma infections in the immunocompromised host. Chemotherapy 1992; 38 (Suppl. 1): 12–22.
  • Glasmacher A, Cornely O, Ullmann AJ, . An open-label randomized trial comparing itraconazole oral solution with fluconazole oral solution for primary prophylaxis of fungal infections in patients with haematological malignancy and profound neutropenia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57: 317–325.
  • Glasmacher A, Prentice A, Gorschluter M, . Itraconazole prevents invasive fungal infections in neutropenic patients treated for hematologic malignancies: evidence from a meta-analysis of 3,597 patients. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21: 4615–4626.
  • Ally R, Schurmann D, Kreisel W, . A randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, multicenter trial of voriconazole and fluconazole in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1447–1454.
  • Kullberg BJ, Sobel JD, Ruhnke M, . Voriconazole versus a regimen of amphotericin B followed by fluconazole for candidaemia in non-neutropenic patients: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2005; 366: 1435–1442.
  • Perfect JR, Marr KA, Walsh TJ, . Voriconazole treatment for less-common, emerging, or refractory fungal infections. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36: 1122–1131.
  • Lortholary O, Obenga G, Biswas P, . An international, retrospective analysis of 73 cases of invasive fusariosis treated with voriconazole. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010;54: 4446–4450.
  • Siwek GT, Pfaller MA, Polgreen PM, . Incidence of invasive aspergillosis among allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients receiving voriconazole prophylaxis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2006; 55: 209–212.
  • Wingard JR, Carter SL, Walsh TJ, . Randomized double-blind trial of fluconazole versus voriconazole for prevention of invasive fungal infection (IFI) after allo hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). Blood 2010; 116: 5111–5118.
  • Cornely OA, Maertens J, Winston DJ, . Posaconazole vs. fluconazole or itraconazole prophylaxis in patients with neutropenia. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 348–359.
  • Ullmann AJ, Lipton JH, Vesole DH, . Posaconazole or fluconazole for prophylaxis in severe graft-versus-host disease. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 335–347.
  • Walsh TJ, Raad I, Patterson TF, . Treatment of invasive aspergillosis with posaconazole in patients who are refractory to or intolerant of conventional therapy: an externally controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 2–12.
  • van Burik JA, Hare RS, Solomon HF, Corrado ML, Kontoyiannis DP. Posaconazole is effective as salvage therapy in zygomycosis: a retrospective summary of 91 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: e61–65.
  • Micromedex [database on the Internet]. Micafungin. c2010. Accessed 16 November 2010 from the website: http://www.thomsonhc.com/hcs/librarian/ND_T/HCS/ND_PR/Main/CS/20BED0/DUPLICATIONSHIELDSYNC/52CC97/ND_PG/PRIH/ND_B/HCS/SBK/2/ND_P/Main/PFActionId/hcs.common.RetrieveDocumentCommon/DocId/2296/ContentSetId/31/SearchTerm/ micafungin%20/SearchOption/BeginWith
  • Micromedex [database on the Internet]. Caspofungin. c2010. Accessed 16 November 2010 from the website: http://www.thomsonhc.com/hcs/librarian/ND_T/HCS/ND_PR/Main/CS/7CD972/DUPLICATIONSHIELDSYNC/76ECAA/ND_PG/PRIH/ND_B/HCS/SBK/2/ND_P/Main/PFActionId/hcs.common.RetrieveDocumentCommon/DocId/2516/ContentSetId/31/SearchTerm/caspofungin%20/SearchOption/BeginWith
  • Micromedex [database on the Internet]. Anidulafungin. c2010. Accessed 16 November 2010 from the website: http://www.thomsonhc.com/hcs/librarian/ND_T/HCS/ND_PR/Main/CS/F1476A/DUPLICATIONSHIELDSYNC/B52CCA/ND_PG/PRIH/ND_B/HCS/SBK/2/ND_P/MAIN/PFActionId/hcs.common.RetrieveDocumentCommon/DocId/2292/ContentSetId/31/SearchTerm/ anidulafungin%20/SearchOption/BeginWith
  • Antachopoulos C, Meletiadis J, Sein T, Roilides E, Walsh TJ. Concentration-dependent effects of caspofungin on the metabolic activity of Aspergillus species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007; 51: 881–887.
  • Kurtz MB, Heath IB, Marrinan J, . Morphological effects of lipopeptides against Aspergillus fumigatus correlate with activities against (1,3)-beta-D-glucan synthase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38: 1480–1489.
  • Nakai T, Uno J, Ikeda F, . In vitro antifungal activity of Micafungin (FK463) against dimorphic fungi: comparison of yeast-like and mycelial forms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 1376–1381.
  • Astellas Pharma US I. Mycamine (micafungin) Package Insert. Astellas Pharma US Inc. 2008. Accessed 18 May 2010 from the website: http://www.astellas.us/docs/mycamine_pdf_2010
  • Merck & Co. I. Cancidas (caspofungin) Package Insert. Merck & Co. Inc. 2010. Accessed 18 May 2010 from the website: http://www.merckcom/product/usa/pi_circulars/c/cancidas/cancidas_pi_pdf_2010
  • Pfizer Inc. Eraxis (anidulafungin) Package Insert. Pfizer Inc. 2010. Accessed 18 May 2010 from the website: http://media.pfizer com/files/products/uspi_eraxis_pdf_2010
  • Andes D, Diekema DJ, Pfaller MA, . In vivo comparison of the pharmacodynamic targets for echinocandin drugs against Candida species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54: 2497–2506.
  • Forrest GN, Weekes E, Johnson JK. Increasing incidence of Candida parapsilosis candidemia with caspofungin usage. J Infect 2008; 56: 126–129.
  • Kabbara N, Lacroix C, Peffault de LR, . Breakthrough C. parapsilosis and C. guilliermondii blood stream infections in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients receiving long-term caspofungin therapy. Haematologica 2008; 93: 639–640.
  • Clinical Laboratory and Standards Institute WP2. CLSI Reference Method for Broth Dilution Antifungal Susceptibility Testing of Filamentous Fungi: Approved Standard, document M38-A2, 2nd. Wayne, IN: Clinical Laboratory and Standards Institute, 2008.
  • Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, . Correlation of MIC with outcome for Candida species tested against caspofungin, anidulafungin, and micafungin: analysis and proposal for interpretive MIC breakpoints. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46: 2620–2629.
  • Quindos G, Eraso E. In vitro antifungal activity of anidulafungin. Rev Iberoam Micol 2008; 25: 83–91.
  • Quindos G, Eraso E, Javier Carrillo-Munoz A, Canton E, Peman J. In vitro antifungal activity of micafungin. Rev Iberoam Micol 2009; 26: 35–41.
  • Maligie MA, Selitrennikoff CP. Cryptococcus neoformans resistance to echinocandins: (1,3)beta-glucan synthase activity is sensitive to echinocandins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 2851–2856.
  • Uchida K, Nishiyama Y, Yokota N, Yamaguchi H. In vitro antifungal activity of a novel lipopeptide antifungal agent, FK463, against various fungal pathogens. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2000; 53: 1175–1181.
  • Sucher AJ, Chahine EB, Balcer HE. Echinocandins: the newest class of antifungals. Ann Pharmacother 2009; 43: 1647–1657.
  • Denning DW. Echinocandin antifungal drugs. Lancet 2003; 362: 1142–1151.
  • Espinel-Ingroff A. Comparison of in vitro activities of the new triazole SCH56592 and the echinocandins MK-0991 (L-743,872) and LY303366 against opportunistic filamentous and dimorphic fungi and yeasts. J Clin Microbiol 1998; 36: 2950–2956.
  • Tawara S, Ikeda F, Maki K, . In vitro activities of a new lipopeptide antifungal agent, FK463, against a variety of clinically important fungi. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44: 57–62.
  • Zhanel GG, Karlowsky JA, Harding GA, . In vitro activity of a new semisynthetic echinocandin, LY-303366, against systemic isolates of Candida species, Cryptococcus neoformans, Blastomyces dermatitidis, and Aspergillus species. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 863–865.
  • Arikan S, Lozano-Chiu M, Paetznick V, Rex JH. In vitro synergy of caspofungin and amphotericin B against Aspergillus and Fusarium spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 245–247.
  • Cappelletty D, Eiselstein-McKitrick K. The echinocandins. Pharmacotherapy 2007; 27: 369–388.
  • Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C, . Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 2020–2029.
  • Pappas PG, Rotstein CM, Betts RF, . Micafungin versus caspofungin for treatment of candidemia and other forms of invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 883–893.
  • Betts RF, Nucci M, Talwar D, . A Multicenter, double-blind trial of a high-dose caspofungin treatment regimen versus a standard caspofungin treatment regimen for adult patients with invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 1676–1684.
  • Colombo AL, Perfect J, DiNubile M, . Global distribution and outcomes for Candida species causing invasive candidiasis: results from an international randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for the treatment of invasive candidiasis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22: 470–474.
  • DiNubile MJ, Strohmaier KM, Lupinacci RJ, . Efficacy and safety of caspofungin therapy in elderly patients with proven or suspected invasive fungal infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2008; 27: 663–670.
  • Arathoon EG, Gotuzzo E, Noriega LM, . Randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for treatment of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 451–457.
  • DiNubile MJ, Lupinacci RJ, Berman RS, Sable CA. Response and relapse rates of candidal esophagitis in HIV-infected patients treated with caspofungin. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2002; 18: 903–908.
  • Villanueva A, Arathoon EG, Gotuzzo E, . A randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus amphotericin for the treatment of candidal esophagitis. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1529–1535.
  • Maertens J, Glasmacher A, Herbrecht R, . Multicenter, noncomparative study of caspofungin in combination with other antifungals as salvage therapy in adults with invasive aspergillosis. Cancer 2006; 107: 2888–2897.
  • Singh N, Limaye AP, Forrest G, . Combination of voriconazole and caspofungin as primary therapy for invasive aspergillosis in solid organ transplant recipients: a prospective, multicenter, observational study. Transplantation 2006; 81: 320–326.
  • Caillot D, Thiebaut A, Herbrecht R, . Liposomal amphotericin B in combination with caspofungin for invasive aspergillosis in patients with hematologic malignancies: a randomized pilot study (Combistrat trial). Cancer 2007; 110: 2740–2746.
  • Maertens J, Raad I, Petrikkos G, . Efficacy and safety of caspofungin for treatment of invasive aspergillosis in patients refractory to or intolerant of conventional antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 1563–1571.
  • Mattiuzzi GN, Alvarado G, Giles FJ, . Open-label, randomized comparison of itraconazole versus caspofungin for prophylaxis in patients with hematologic malignancies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 143–147.
  • Kuse ER, Chetchotisakd P, da Cunha CA, . Micafungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for candidaemia and invasive candidosis: a phase III randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2007; 369: 1519–1527.
  • Dupont BF, Lortholary O, Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Stucker F, Yeldandi V. Treatment of candidemia and invasive candidiasis in the intensive care unit: post hoc analysis of a randomized, controlled trial comparing micafungin and liposomal amphotericin B. Crit Care 2009; 13: R159.
  • de Wet NT, Bester AJ, Viljoen JJ, . A randomized, double blind, comparative trial of micafungin (FK463) vs. fluconazole for the treatment of oesophageal candidiasis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 21: 899–907.
  • Pettengell K, Mynhardt J, Kluyts T, . Successful treatment of oesophageal candidiasis by micafungin: a novel systemic antifungal agent. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004; 20: 475–481.
  • Hiramatsu Y, Maeda Y, Fujii N, . Use of micafungin versus fluconazole for antifungal prophylaxis in neutropenic patients receiving hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Int J Hematol 2008; 88: 588–595.
  • Krause DS, Reinhardt J, Vazquez JA, . Phase 2, randomized, dose-ranging study evaluating the safety and efficacy of anidulafungin in invasive candidiasis and candidemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 2021–2024.
  • Zaoutis TE, Jafri HS, Huang LM, . A prospective, multicenter study of caspofungin for the treatment of documented Candida or Aspergillus infections in pediatric patients. Pediatrics 2009; 123: 877–884.
  • Benjamin DK, Jr., Smith PB, Arrieta A, . Safety and pharmacokinetics of repeat-dose micafungin in young infants. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2010; 87: 93–99.
  • Heresi GP, Gerstmann DR, Reed MD, . The pharmacokinetics and safety of micafungin, a novel echinocandin, in premature infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 25: 1110–1115.
  • Queiroz-Telles F, Berezin E, Leverger G, . Micafungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for pediatric patients with invasive candidiasis: substudy of a randomized double-blind trial. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008; 27: 820–826.
  • Benjamin DK, Jr., Driscoll T, Seibel NL, . Safety and pharmacokinetics of intravenous anidulafungin in children with neutropenia at high risk for invasive fungal infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 632–638.
  • Brielmaier BD, Casabar E, Kurtzeborn CM, McKinnon PS, Ritchie DJ. Early clinical experience with anidulafungin at a large tertiary care medical center. Pharmacotherapy 2008; 28: 64–73.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.