Viral invasion of the amniotic cavity (VIAC) in the midtrimester of pregnancy

References

• Bobitt JR, Hayslip CC, Damato JD. Amniotic fluid infection as determined by transabdominal amniocentesis in patients with intact membranes in premature labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981;140:947–952.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Mazor M. Infection and preterm labor. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1988;31:553–584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garite TJ, Freeman RK. Chorioamnionitis in the preterm gestation. Obstet Gynecol 1982;59:539–545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Mazor M, Wu YK, Sirtori M, Oyarzun E, Mitchell MD, Hobbins JC. Infection in the pathogenesis of preterm labor. Semin Perinatol 1988;12:262–279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toth M, Witkin SS, Ledger W, Thaler H. The role of infection in the etiology of preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol 1988;71:723–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Sirtori M, Oyarzun E, Avila C, Mazor M, Callahan R, Sabo V, et al. Infection and labor. V. Prevalence, microbiology, and clinical significance of intraamniotic infection in women with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:817–824.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbs RS, Romero R, Hillier SL, Eschenbach DA, Sweet RL. A review of premature birth and subclinical infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1515–1528.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watts DH, Krohn MA, Hillier SL, Eschenbach DA. The association of occult amniotic fluid infection with gestational age and neonatal outcome among women in preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:351–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papiernik E. Preterm labor, preterm delivery, intrauterine infection, and preterm rupture of membranes. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1990;2:8–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Romero R, Gómez R, Chaiworapongsa T, Conoscenti G, Kim JC, Kim YM. The role of infection in preterm labour and delivery. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2001;15 Suppl 2:41–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonçalves LF, Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R. Intrauterine infection and prematurity. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002;8:3–13.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yost NP, Cox SM. Infection and preterm labor. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2000;43:759–767.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Romero R, Espinoza J, Chaiworapongsa T, Kalache K. Infection and prematurity and the role of preventive strategies. Semin Neonatol 2002;7:259–274.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobsson B, Mattsby-Baltzer I, Andersch B, Bokström H, Holst RM, Wennerholm UB, Hagberg H. Microbial invasion and cytokine response in amniotic fluid in a Swedish population of women in preterm labor. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2003;82:120–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Espinoza J, Mazor M, Chaiworapongsa T. The preterm parturition syndrome.. In: Critchley C, Bennet P Thornton S, editors. Preterm Birth First. London: RCOG Press; 2004. pp 28–60.
   Google Scholar
• Romero R, Espinoza J, Kusanovic JP, Gotsch F, Hassan S, Erez O, Chaiworapongsa T, Mazor M. The preterm parturition syndrome. BJOG 2006;113 Suppl 3:17–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kusanovic JP, Espinoza J, Romero R, Gonçalves LF, Nien JK, Soto E, Khalek N, et al. Clinical significance of the presence of amniotic fluid ‘sludge’ in asymptomatic patients at high risk for spontaneous preterm delivery. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2007;30:706–714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez R, Romero R, Nien JK, Chaiworapongsa T, Medina L, Kim YM, Yoon BH, et al. A short cervix in women with preterm labor and intact membranes: a risk factor for microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;192:678–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Ghidini A, Mazor M, Behnke E. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in premature rupture of membranes. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1991;34:769–778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll SG, Ville Y, Greenough A, Gamsu H, Patel B, Philpott-Howard J, Nicolaides KH. Preterm prelabour amniorrhexis: intrauterine infection and interval between membrane rupture and delivery. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1995;72:F43–F46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witt A, Berger A, Gruber CJ, Petricevic L, Apfalter P, Worda C, Husslein P. Increased intrauterine frequency of Ureaplasma urealyticum in women with preterm labor and preterm premature rupture of the membranes and subsequent cesarean delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;193:1663–1669.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greig PC. The diagnosis of intrauterine infection in women with preterm premature rupture of the membranes (PPROM). Clin Obstet Gynecol 1998;41:849–863.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong JS, Park KH, Noh JH, Suh YH. Cervical length and the risk of microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in women with preterm premature rupture of membranes. J Korean Med Sci 2007;22:713–717.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gomez R, Romero R, Edwin SS, David C. Pathogenesis of preterm labor and preterm premature rupture of membranes associated with intraamniotic infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1997;11:135–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SE, Romero R, Lee SM, Yoon BH. Amniotic fluid volume in intra-amniotic inflammation with and without culture-proven amniotic fluid infection in preterm premature rupture of membranes. J Perinat Med 2010;38:39–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudley J, Malcolm G, Ellwood D. Amniocentesis in the management of preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1991;31:331–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez R, Romero R, Nien JK, Medina L, Carstens M, Kim YM, Espinoza J, et al. Antibiotic administration to patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes does not eradicate intra-amniotic infection. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2007;20:167–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsson B, Aaltonen R, Rantakokko-Jalava K, Morken NH, Alanen A. Quantification of Ureaplasma urealyticum DNA in the amniotic fluid from patients in PTL and pPROM and its relation to inflammatory cytokine levels. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2009;88:63–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh KJ, Lee KA, Sohn YK, Park CW, Hong JS, Romero R, Yoon BH. Intraamniotic infection with genital mycoplasmas exhibits a more intense inflammatory response than intraamniotic infection with other microorganisms in patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010;203:211.e1–211.e8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Quintero R, Oyarzun E, Wu YK, Sabo V, Mazor M, Hobbins JC. Intraamniotic infection and the onset of labor in preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;159:661–666.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Gonzalez R, Sepulveda W, Brandt F, Ramirez M, Sorokin Y, Mazor M, et al. Infection and labor. VIII. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in patients with suspected cervical incompetence: prevalence and clinical significance. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:1086–1091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hassan S, Romero R, Hendler I, Gomez R, Khalek N, Espinoza J, Nien JK, et al. A sonographic short cervix as the only clinical manifestation of intra-amniotic infection. J Perinat Med 2006;34:13–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bujold E, Morency AM, Rallu F, Ferland S, Tétu A, Duperron L, Audibert F, Laferrière C. Bacteriology of amniotic fluid in women with suspected cervical insufficiency. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2008;30:882–887.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaisbuch E, Romero R, Erez O, Kusanovic JP, Mazaki-Tovi S, Gotsch F, Romero V, et al. Clinical significance of early (< 20 weeks) vs. late (20-24 weeks) detection of sonographic short cervix in asymptomatic women in the mid-trimester. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2010;36:471–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaisbuch E, Hassan SS, Mazaki-Tovi S, Nhan-Chang CL, Kusanovic JP, Chaiworapongsa T, Dong Z, et al. Patients with an asymptomatic short cervix (<or=15 mm) have a high rate of subclinical intraamniotic inflammation: implications for patient counseling. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010;202:433.e1–433.e8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh KJ, Lee SE, Jung H, Kim G, Romero R, Yoon BH. Detection of ureaplasmas by the polymerase chain reaction in the amniotic fluid of patients with cervical insufficiency. J Perinat Med 2010;38:261–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez R, Romero R, Ghezzi F, Yoon BH, Mazor M, Berry SM. The fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:194–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Kim CJ, Jun JK, Gomez R, Choi JH, Syn HC. Amniotic fluid interleukin-6: a sensitive test for antenatal diagnosis of acute inflammatory lesions of preterm placenta and prediction of perinatal morbidity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;172:960–970.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Yang SH, Jun JK, Kim IO, Choi JH, Syn HC. Interleukin-6 concentrations in umbilical cord plasma are elevated in neonates with white matter lesions associated with periventricular leukomalacia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1433–1440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Kim CJ, Koo JN, Choe G, Syn HC, Chi JG. High expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 in periventricular leukomalacia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:406–411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Kim CJ, Romero R, Jun JK, Park KH, Choi ST, Chi JG. Experimentally induced intrauterine infection causes fetal brain white matter lesions in rabbits. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:797–802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gotsch F, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Mazaki-Tovi S, Pineles BL, Erez O, Espinoza J, Hassan SS. The fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2007;50:652–683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trivedi S, Joachim M, McElrath T, Kliman HJ, Allred EN, Fichorova RN, Onderdonk A, et al.; Extremely Low Gestational Age Newborns (ELGAN) study investigators. Fetal-placental inflammation, but not adrenal activation, is associated with extreme preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012;206:236.e1–236.e8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Park JS, Kim M, Oh SY, Kim CJ, Jun JK. The relationship among inflammatory lesions of the umbilical cord (funisitis), umbilical cord plasma interleukin 6 concentration, amniotic fluid infection, and neonatal sepsis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:1124–1129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SE, Romero R, Jung H, Park CW, Park JS, Yoon BH. The intensity of the fetal inflammatory response in intraamniotic inflammation with and without microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197:294.e1–294.e6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Gotsch F, Pineles B, Kusanovic JP. Inflammation in pregnancy: its roles in reproductive physiology, obstetrical complications, and fetal injury. Nutr Rev 2007;65:S194–S202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Kim KS, Park JS, Ki SH, Kim BI, Jun JK. A systemic fetal inflammatory response and the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:773–779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Park JS, Kim CJ, Kim SH, Choi JH, Han TR. Fetal exposure to an intra-amniotic inflammation and the development of cerebral palsy at the age of three years. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;182:675–681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilstrap LC 3rd, Ramin SM. Infection and cerebral palsy. Semin Perinatol 2000;24:200–203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girard S, Kadhim H, Roy M, Lavoie K, Brochu ME, Larouche A, Sébire G. Role of perinatal inflammation in cerebral palsy. Pediatr Neurol 2009;40:168–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leviton A, Allred EN, Kuban KC, Hecht JL, Onderdonk AB, O’shea TM, Paneth N. Microbiologic and histologic characteristics of the extremely preterm infant’s placenta predict white matter damage and later cerebral palsy. the ELGAN study. Pediatr Res 2010;67:95–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger A, Witt A, Haiden N, Kaider A, Klebermasz K, Fuiko R, Langgartner M, Pollak A. Intrauterine infection with Ureaplasma species is associated with adverse neuromotor outcome at 1 and 2 years adjusted age in preterm infants. J Perinat Med 2009;37:72–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leviton A, Hecht JL, Allred EN, Yamamoto H, Fichorova RN, Dammann O; ELGAN Study Investigators. Persistence after birth of systemic inflammation associated with umbilical cord inflammation. J Reprod Immunol 2011;90:235–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen ML, Allred EN, Hecht JL, Onderdonk A, VanderVeen D, Wallace DK, Leviton A, Dammann O; ELGAN Study. Placenta microbiology and histology and the risk for severe retinopathy of prematurity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011;52:7052–7058.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helderman JB, O’Shea TM, Kuban KC, Allred EN, Hecht JL, Dammann O, Paneth N, et al.; ELGAN study Investigators. Antenatal antecedents of cognitive impairment at 24 months in extremely low gestational age newborns. Pediatrics 2012;129:494–502.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Moon JB, Shim SS, Kim M, Kim G, Jun JK. Clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;185:1130–1136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim KW, Romero R, Park HS, Park CW, Shim SS, Jun JK, Yoon BH. A rapid matrix metalloproteinase-8 bedside test for the detection of intraamniotic inflammation in women with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197:292.e1–292.e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shim SS, Romero R, Hong JS, Park CW, Jun JK, Kim BI, Yoon BH. Clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;191:1339–1345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalava J, Mäntymaa ML, Ekblad U, Toivanen P, Skurnik M, Lassila O, Alanen A. Bacterial 16S rDNA polymerase chain reaction in the detection of intra-amniotic infection. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996;103:664–669.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Markenson GR, Martin RK, Tillotson-Criss M, Foley KS, Stewart RS Jr., Yancey M. The use of the polymerase chain reaction to detect bacteria in amniotic fluid in pregnancies complicated by preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:1471–1477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hitti J, Riley DE, Krohn MA, Hillier SL, Agnew KJ, Krieger JN, Eschenbach DA. Broad-spectrum bacterial rDNA polymerase chain reaction assay for detecting amniotic fluid infection among women in premature labor. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:1228–1232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alanen A. Polymerase chain reaction in the detection of microbes in amniotic fluid. Ann Med 1998;30:288–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oyarzún E, Yamamoto M, Kato S, Gómez R, Lizama L, Moenne A. Specific detection of 16 micro-organisms in amniotic fluid by polymerase chain reaction and its correlation with preterm delivery occurrence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1115–1119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardella C, Riley DE, Hitti J, Agnew K, Krieger JN, Eschenbach D. Identification and sequencing of bacterial rDNAs in culture-negative amniotic fluid from women in premature labor. Am J Perinatol 2004;21:319–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miralles R, Hodge R, McParland PC, Field DJ, Bell SC, Taylor DJ, Grant WD, Kotecha S. Relationship between antenatal inflammation and antenatal infection identified by detection of microbial genes by polymerase chain reaction. Pediatr Res 2005;57:570–577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Kim M, Kim EC, Kim T, Park JS, Jun JK. Clinical implications of detection of Ureaplasma urealyticum in the amniotic cavity with the polymerase chain reaction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:1130–1137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rallu F, Morency AM, Laferrière C, Bujold E. Invasion of the amniotic cavity by an uncultured bacterium, a Gram-positive coccus. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2007;20:185–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kay ID, Palladino S, Alexander R, Leahy BJ, Pearman JW. Evaluation of a commercial polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Chlamydia trachomatis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1997;28:75–79.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rodríguez N, Fernandez C, Zamora Y, Berdasquera D, Rivera JA. Detection of Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum in amniotic fluid: association with pregnancy outcomes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2011;24:47–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim M, Kim G, Romero R, Shim SS, Kim EC, Yoon BH. Biovar diversity of Ureaplasma urealyticum in amniotic fluid: distribution, intrauterine inflammatory response and pregnancy outcomes. J Perinat Med 2003;31:146–152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiGiulio DB, Romero R, Amogan HP, Kusanovic JP, Bik EM, Gotsch F, Kim CJ, et al. Microbial prevalence, diversity and abundance in amniotic fluid during preterm labor: a molecular and culture-based investigation. PLoS ONE 2008;3:e3056.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiGiulio DB, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Gómez R, Kim CJ, Seok KS, Gotsch F, et al. Prevalence and diversity of microbes in the amniotic fluid, the fetal inflammatory response, and pregnancy outcome in women with preterm pre-labor rupture of membranes. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010;64:38–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiGiulio DB, Gervasi M, Romero R, Mazaki-Tovi S, Vaisbuch E, Kusanovic JP, Seok KS, et al. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in preeclampsia as assessed by cultivation and sequence-based methods. J Perinat Med 2010;38:503–513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiGiulio DB, Gervasi MT, Romero R, Vaisbuch E, Mazaki-Tovi S, Kusanovic JP, Seok KS, et al. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in pregnancies with small-for-gestational-age fetuses. J Perinat Med 2010;38:495–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiGiulio DB. Diversity of microbes in amniotic fluid. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2012;17:2–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koga K, Cardenas I, Aldo P, Abrahams VM, Peng B, Fill S, Romero R, Mor G. Activation of TLR3 in the trophoblast is associated with preterm delivery. Am J Reprod Immunol 2009;61:196–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilievski V, Hirsch E. Synergy between viral and bacterial toll-like receptors leads to amplification of inflammatory responses and preterm labor in the mouse. Biol Reprod 2010;83:767–773.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardenas I, Means RE, Aldo P, Koga K, Lang SM, Booth CJ, Booth C, et al. Viral infection of the placenta leads to fetal inflammation and sensitization to bacterial products predisposing to preterm labor. J Immunol 2010;185:1248–1257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardenas I, Mor G, Aldo P, Lang SM, Stabach P, Sharp A, Romero R, et al. Placental viral infection sensitizes to endotoxin-induced pre-term labor: a double hit hypothesis. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011;65:110–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubin JT, Poirel L, Agut H, Huraux JM, Bignozzi C, Brossard Y, Mulliez N, et al. Intrauterine transmission of human herpesvirus 6. Lancet 1992;340:482–483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunne WM Jr., Demmler GJ. Serological evidence for congenital transmission of human herpesvirus 6. Lancet 1992;340:121–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schäfer A. Materno-fetal transmission of human immune deficiency virus. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 1997;5:115–120.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang SL, Yue YF, Bai GQ, Shi L, Jiang H. Mechanism of intrauterine infection of hepatitis B virus. World J Gastroenterol 2004;10:437–438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruprecht RM, Fratazzi C, Sharma PL, Greene MF, Penninck D, Wyand M. Animal models for perinatal transmission of pathogenic viruses. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1993;693:213–228.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee AK, Ip HM, Wong VC. Mechanisms of maternal-fetal transmission of hepatitis B virus. J Infect Dis 1978;138:668–671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ville Y. The megalovirus. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1998;12:151–153.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosenthal LJ, Panitz PJ, Crutchfield DB, Chou JY. Cytomegalovirus replication in primary and passaged human placental cells. Intervirology 1981;16:168–175.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Moussa M, Mognetti B, Dubanchet S, Menu E, Roques P, Gras G, Dormont D, et al. Vertical transmission of HIV: parameters which might affect infection of placental trophoblasts by HIV-1: a review. Biomed Group on the Study of in Utero Transmission of HIV 1. Am J Reprod Immunol 1999;41:312–319.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koi H, Zhang J, Parry S. The mechanisms of placental viral infection. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001;943:148–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaplan C. The placenta and viral infections. Semin Diagn Pathol 1993;10:232–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright HT Jr. Congenital anomalies and viral infections in infants. The etiologic role of maternal viral infections. Calif Med 1966;105:345–351.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lamont RF, Sobel JD, Carrington D, Mazaki-Tovi S, Kusanovic JP, Vaisbuch E, Romero R. Varicella-zoster virus (chickenpox) infection in pregnancy. BJOG 2011;118:1155–1162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hain J, Doshi N, Harger JH. Ascending transcervical herpes simplex infection with intact fetal membranes. Obstet Gynecol 1980;56:106–109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ohyama M, Motegi Y, Goto A, Tanaka Y, Shimizu H, Yokota S. Ascending placentofetal infection caused by cytomegalovirus. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992;99:770.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Montone KT, Furth EE, Pietra GG, Gupta PK. Neonatal adenovirus infection: a case report with in situ hybridization confirmation of ascending intrauterine infection. Diagn Cytopathol 1995;12:341–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanc WA. Pathology of the placenta and cord in ascending and in haematogenous infection. Ciba Found Symp 1979;17:17–38.
   Google Scholar
• Zeichner SL, Plotkin SA. Mechanisms and pathways of congenital infections. Clin Perinatol 1988;15:163–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeffries DJ. Intra-uterine and neonatal herpes simplex virus infection. Scand J Infect Dis Suppl 1991;80:21–26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nigro G, Mazzocco M, Mattia E, Di Renzo GC, Carta G, Anceschi MM. Role of the infections in recurrent spontaneous abortion. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2011;24:983–989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean LK, Chehab FF, Goldberg JD. Detection of viral deoxyribonucleic acid in the amniotic fluid of low-risk pregnancies by polymerase chain reaction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:1282–1286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baschat AA, Towbin J, Bowles NE, Harman CR, Weiner CP. Prevalence of viral DNA in amniotic fluid of low-risk pregnancies in the second trimester. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003;13:381–384.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miller JL, Harman C, Weiner C, Baschat AA. Perinatal outcomes after second trimester detection of amniotic fluid viral genome in asymptomatic patients. J Perinat Med 2009;37:140–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isada NB, Berry SM. In utero diagnosis of congenital infection.. In: Gonik B, editors. Viral diseases in pregnancy. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1994. pp 24–49.
   Google Scholar
• Romero R, Emamian M, Quintero R, Wan M, Hobbins JC, Mazor M, Edberg S. The value and limitations of the Gram stain examination in the diagnosis of intraamniotic infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;159:114–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Listwa HM, Dobek AS, Carpenter J, Gibbs RS. The predictability of intrauterine infection by analysis of amniotic fluid. Obstet Gynecol 1976;48:31–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broekhuizen FF, Gilman M, Hamilton PR. Amniocentesis for gram stain and culture in preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:316–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asrat T, Nageotte MP, Garite TJ, Gocke SE, Dorchester W. Gram stain results from amniocentesis in patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes–comparison of maternal and fetal characteristics. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:887–889.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Yoon BH, Mazor M, Gomez R, Diamond MP, Kenney JS, Ramirez M, et al. The diagnostic and prognostic value of amniotic fluid white blood cell count, glucose, interleukin-6, and gram stain in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;169:805–816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Quintero R, Nores J, Avila C, Mazor M, Hanaoka S, Hagay Z, et al. Amniotic fluid white blood cell count: a rapid and simple test to diagnose microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and predict preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;165:821–830.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Jimenez C, Lohda AK, Nores J, Hanaoka S, Avila C, Callahan R, et al. Amniotic fluid glucose concentration: a rapid and simple method for the detection of intraamniotic infection in preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:968–974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biasolo MA, Calistri A, Cesaro S, Gentile G, Mengoli C, Palù G. Case report: Kinetics of Epstein-Barr virus load in a bone marrow transplant patient with no sign of lymphoproliferative disease. J Med Virol 2003;69:220–224.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mengoli C, Cusinato R, Biasolo MA, Cesaro S, Parolin C, Palù G. Assessment of CMV load in solid organ transplant recipients by pp65 antigenemia and real-time quantitative DNA PCR assay: correlation with pp67 RNA detection. J Med Virol 2004;74:78–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barzon L, Murer L, Pacenti M, Biasolo MA, Della Vella M, Benetti E, Zanon GF, Palù G. Investigation of intrarenal viral infections in kidney transplant recipients unveils an association between parvovirus B19 and chronic allograft injury. J Infect Dis 2009;199:372–380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson KA, Griffin DW, Paul JH. Detection, quantitation and identification of enteroviruses from surface waters and sponge tissue from the Florida Keys using real-time RT-PCR. Water Res 2002;36:2505–2514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenstrom KD, Andrews WW, Bowles NE, Towbin JA, Hauth JC, Goldenberg RL. Intrauterine viral infection at the time of second trimester genetic amniocentesis. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:420–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van den Veyver IB, Ni J, Bowles N, Carpenter RJ Jr, Weiner CP, Yankowitz J, Moise KJ Jr, et al. Detection of intrauterine viral infection using the polymerase chain reaction. Mol Genet Metab 1998;63:85–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burguete T, Rabreau M, Fontanges-Darriet M, Roset E, Hager HD, Köppel A, Bischof P, Schlehofer JR. Evidence for infection of the human embryo with adeno-associated virus in pregnancy. Hum Reprod 1999;14:2396–2401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy UM, Baschat AA, Zlatnik MG, Towbin JA, Harman CR, Weiner CP. Detection of viral deoxyribonucleic acid in amniotic fluid: association with fetal malformation and pregnancy abnormalities. Fetal Diagn Ther 2005;20:203–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrikovsky BM, Lipson SM, Kaplan MH. Viral studies on amniotic fluid from fetuses with and without abnormalities detected by prenatal sonography. J Reprod Med 2003;48:230–232.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Segondy M, Boulot J, N’Dakortamanda N, Gay B, Bascoul S, Mandin J. Detection of rubella virus in amniotic fluid by electron microscopy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1990;37:77–81.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tang JW, Aarons E, Hesketh LM, Strobel S, Schalasta G, Jauniaux E, Brink NS, Enders G. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital rubella infection in the second trimester of pregnancy. Prenat Diagn 2003;23:509–512.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Macé M, Cointe D, Six C, Levy-Bruhl D, Parent du Châtelet I, Ingrand D, Grangeot-Keros L. Diagnostic value of reverse transcription-PCR of amniotic fluid for prenatal diagnosis of congenital rubella infection in pregnant women with confirmed primary rubella infection. J Clin Microbiol 2004;42:4818–4820.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leineweber B, Grote V, Schaad UB, Heininger U. Transplacentally acquired immunoglobulin G antibodies against measles, mumps, rubella and varicella-zoster virus in preterm and full term newborns. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004;23:361–363.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shah I, Bhatnagar S. Antenatal diagnostic problem of congenital rubella. Indian J Pediatr 2010;77:450–451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vauloup-Fellous C, Hübschen JM, Abernathy ES, Icenogle J, Gaidot N, Dubreuil P, Parent-du-Châtelet I, et al. Phylogenetic analysis of rubella viruses involved in congenital rubella infections in France between 1995 and 2009. J Clin Microbiol 2010;48:2530–2535.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hogge WA, Buffone GJ, Hogge JS. Prenatal diagnosis of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection: a preliminary report. Prenat Diagn 1993;13:131–136.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mulongo KN, Lamy ME, Van Lierde M. Requirements for diagnosis of prenatal cytomegalovirus infection by amniotic fluid culture. Clin Diagn Virol 1995;4:231–238.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Casteels A, Naessens A, Gordts F, De Catte L, Bougatef A, Foulon W. Neonatal screening for congenital cytomegalovirus infections. J Perinat Med 1999;27:116–121.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bodéus M, Hubinont C, Bernard P, Bouckaert A, Thomas K, Goubau P. Prenatal diagnosis of human cytomegalovirus by culture and polymerase chain reaction: 98 pregnancies leading to congenital infection. Prenat Diagn 1999;19:314–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansy F, Brancart F, Liesnard C, Bollen A, Godfroid E. A PCR based DNA hybridisation capture system for the detection of human cytomegalovirus. A comparative study with other identification methods. J Virol Methods 1999;80:113–122.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gouarin S, Palmer P, Cointe D, Rogez S, Vabret A, Rozenberg F, Denis F, et al. Congenital HCMV infection: a collaborative and comparative study of virus detection in amniotic fluid by culture and by PCR. J Clin Virol 2001;21:47–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazzarotto T, Gabrielli L, Foschini MP, Lanari M, Guerra B, Eusebi V, Landini MP. Congenital cytomegalovirus infection in twin pregnancies: viral load in the amniotic fluid and pregnancy outcome. Pediatrics 2003;112:e153–e157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avidor B, Efrat G, Weinberg M, Kra-oz Z, Satinger J, Mitrani-Rosenbaum S, Yaron Y, et al. Insight into the intrinsic sensitivity of the PCR assay used to detect CMV infection in amniotic fluid specimens. J Clin Virol 2004;29:260–270.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biri A, Bozdayi G, Ciçfti B, Dinç B, Yücel A, Rota S. The detection of CMV in amniotic fluid and cervicovaginal smear samples by real-time PCR assay in prenatal diagnosis. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2006;273:261–266.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zalel Y, Gilboa Y, Berkenshtat M, Yoeli R, Auslander R, Achiron R, Goldberg Y. Secondary cytomegalovirus infection can cause severe fetal sequelae despite maternal preconceptional immunity. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2008;31:417–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goegebuer T, Van Meensel B, Beuselinck K, Cossey V, Van Ranst M, Hanssens M, Lagrou K. Clinical predictive value of real-time PCR quantification of human cytomegalovirus DNA in amniotic fluid samples. J Clin Microbiol 2009;47:660–665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yinon Y, Farine D, Yudin MH, Gagnon R, Hudon L, Basso M, Bos H, et al.; Fetal Medicine Committee, Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. [Cytomegalovirus infection in pregnancy]. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2010;32:355–362.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chen CP, Su YN, Chern SR, Wang TY, Tsai FJ, Lin HH, Wu PC, Wang W. Detection and comparison of cytomegalovirus DNA levels in amniotic fluid and fetal ascites in a second-trimester fetus with massive ascites, hyperechogenic bowel, ventriculomegaly and intrauterine growth restriction. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol 2010;49:206–210.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yinon Y, Farine D, Yudin MH. Screening, diagnosis, and management of cytomegalovirus infection in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2010;65:736–743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enders G, Daiminger A, Bäder U, Exler S, Enders M. Intrauterine transmission and clinical outcome of 248 pregnancies with primary cytomegalovirus infection in relation to gestational age. J Clin Virol 2011;52:244–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler SP. Screening for cytomegalovirus during pregnancy. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2011;2011:1–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nigro G, Adler SP. Cytomegalovirus infections during pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2011;23:123–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syridou G, Spanakis N, Konstantinidou A, Piperaki ET, Kafetzis D, Patsouris E, Antsaklis A, Tsakris A. Detection of cytomegalovirus, parvovirus B19 and herpes simplex viruses in cases of intrauterine fetal death: association with pathological findings. J Med Virol 2008;80:1776–1782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coll O, Benoist G, Ville Y, Weisman LE, Botet F, Anceschi MM, Greenough A, et al.; WAPM Perinatal Infections Working Group. Guidelines on CMV congenital infection. J Perinat Med 2009;37:433–445.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benoist G, Salomon LJ, Mohlo M, Suarez B, Jacquemard F, Ville Y. Cytomegalovirus-related fetal brain lesions: comparison between targeted ultrasound examination and magnetic resonance imaging. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2008;32:900–905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benoist G, Salomon LJ, Jacquemard F, Daffos F, Ville Y. The prognostic value of ultrasound abnormalities and biological parameters in blood of fetuses infected with cytomegalovirus. BJOG 2008;115:823–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picone O, Costa JM, Chaix ML, Ville Y, Rouzioux C, Leruez-Ville M. Comments on “cytomegalovirus (CMV)-encoded UL144 (truncated tumor necrosis factor receptor) and outcome of congenital CMV infection”. J Infect Dis 2007;196:1719–1720.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Picone O, Costa JM, Dejean A, Ville Y. Is fetal gender a risk factor for severe congenital cytomegalovirus infection? Prenat Diagn 2005;25:34–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Picone O, Costa JM, Leruez-Ville M, Ernault P, Olivi M, Ville Y. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) glycoprotein B genotype and CMV DNA load in the amniotic fluid of infected fetuses. Prenat Diagn 2004;24:1001–1006.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Enders G, Bäder U, Lindemann L, Schalasta G, Daiminger A. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital cytomegalovirus infection in 189 pregnancies with known outcome. Prenat Diagn 2001;21:362–377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malinger G, Lev D, Zahalka N, Ben Aroia Z, Watemberg N, Kidron D, Sira LB, Lerman-Sagie T. Fetal cytomegalovirus infection of the brain: the spectrum of sonographic findings. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2003;24:28–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guibaud L, Attia-Sobol J, Buenerd A, Foray P, Jacquet C, Champion F, Arnould P, et al. Focal sonographic periventricular pattern associated with mild ventriculomegaly in foetal cytomegalic infection revealing cytomegalic encephalitis in the third trimester of pregnancy. Prenat Diagn 2004;24:727–732.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liesnard C, Donner C, Brancart F, Gosselin F, Delforge ML, Rodesch F. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital cytomegalovirus infection: prospective study of 237 pregnancies at risk. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95:881–888.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antsaklis AJ, Daskalakis GJ, Mesogitis SA, Koutra PT, Michalas SS. Prenatal diagnosis of fetal primary cytomegalovirus infection. BJOG 2000;107:84–88.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Semprini AE, Vucetich A, Pardi G, Cossu MM. HIV infection and AIDS in newborn babies of mothers positive for HIV antibody. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987;294:610.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henrion R. Pregnancy and AIDS. Hum Reprod 1988;3:257–262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bawdon RE, Gravell M, Hamilton R, Sever J, Miller R, Gibbs CJ. Studies on the placental transfer of cell-free human immunodeficiency virus and p24 antigen in an ex vivo human placental model. J Soc Gynecol Investig 1994;1:45–48.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gillet JY, Bongain A, Monpoux F, Mariani R. [Maternal-fetal transmission of HIV]. Arch Pediatr 1995;2:169–172.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• John GC, Kreiss J. Mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Epidemiol Rev 1996;18:149–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarlatti G. Paediatric HIV infection. Lancet 1996;348:863–868.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maiques V, García-Tejedor A, Perales A, Córdoba J, Esteban RJ. HIV detection in amniotic fluid samples. Amniocentesis can be performed in HIV pregnant women? Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003;108:137–141.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mohlala BK, Tucker TJ, Besser MJ, Williamson C, Yeats J, Smit L, Anthony J, Puren A. Investigation of HIV in amniotic fluid from HIV-infected pregnant women at full term. J Infect Dis 2005;192:488–491.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lobato AC, Aguiar RA, Aleixo AW, Andrade BA, Cavallo IK, Kakehasi FM, Pinto JA, Melo VH. HIV-1 RNA detection in the amniotic fluid of HIV-infected pregnant women. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2010;105:720–721.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Little BB, Snell LM, Wendel GD, Gilstrap LC, Johnston WL, Gluck KL. HIV prevalence in pregnant intravenous drug users in Dallas, Texas. Tex Med 1991;87:81–83.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz DA, Nahmias AJ. Human immunodeficiency virus and the placenta. Current concepts of vertical transmission in relation to other viral agents. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1991;21:264–274.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ehrnst A, Lindgren S, Dictor M, Johansson B, Sönnerborg A, Czajkowski J, Sundin G, Bohlin AB. HIV in pregnant women and their offspring: evidence for late transmission. Lancet 1991;338:203–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backé E, Jimenez E, Unger M, Schäfer A, Vocks-Hauck M, Grosch-Wörner I, Vogel M. Vertical human immunodeficiency virus transmission: a study of placental pathology in relation to maternal risk factors. Am J Perinatol 1994;11:326–330.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Michie CA, Hyer W. When does HIV cross the placenta? Lancet 1995;345:517–518.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burton GJ, O’Shea S, Rostron T, Mullen JE, Aiyer S, Skepper JN, Smith R, Banatvala J. Physical breaks in the placental trophoblastic surface: significance in vertical transmission of HIV. AIDS 1996;10:1294–1296.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Katz JM, Fox CH, Eglinton GS, Meyers WA3rd, Queenan JT. Relationship between human immunodeficiency virus-1 RNA identification in placenta and perinatal transmission. J Perinatol 1997;17:119–124.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson VM. The placental barrier to maternal HIV infection. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1997;24:797–820.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Al-Husaini AM. Role of placenta in the vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. J Perinatol 2009;29:331–336.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dong ZW, Zhou SY, Li Y, Liu RM. Detection of a human parvovirus intrauterine infection with the polymerase chain reaction. J Reprod Med 2000;45:410–412.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• von Kaisenberg CS, Jonat W. Fetal parvovirus B19 infection. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2001;18:280–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riipinen A, Väisänen E, Nuutila M, Sallmen M, Karikoski R, Lindbohm ML, Hedman K, et al. Parvovirus b19 infection in fetal deaths. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47:1519–1525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarfraz AA, Samuelsen SO, Bruu AL, Jenum PA, Eskild A. Maternal human parvovirus B19 infection and the risk of fetal death and low birthweight: a case-control study within 35 940 pregnant women. BJOG 2009;116:1492–1498.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chow KC, Lee CC, Lin TY, Shen WC, Wang JH, Peng CT, Lee CC. Congenital enterovirus 71 infection: a case study with virology and immunohistochemistry. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:509–512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirlesse V, Solé Y, Jacquemard F, Delhommeau F, Daffos F. Persistent maternal viremia after varicella infection during pregnancy as a possible cause of false positive prenatal diagnosis of fetal infection on amniotic fluid. BJOG 2004;111:885–887.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyberg-Solomayer GC, Fehm T, Muller-Hansen I, Enders G, Poets C, Wallwiener D, Solomayer EF. Prenatal ultrasound diagnosis, follow-up, and outcome of congenital varicella syndrome. Fetal Diagn Ther 2006;21:296–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisz B, Book M, Lipitz S, Katorza E, Achiron R, Grossman Z, Shrim A. Fetal outcome and amniocentesis results in pregnancies complicated by varicella infection. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2011;33:720–724.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alanen A, Hukkanen V. Herpes simplex virus DNA in amniotic fluid without neonatal infection. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30:363–367.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoppen T, Eis-Hübinger AM, Schild RL, Enders G, Hansmann M, Rister M, Bartmann P. [Intrauterine herpes simplex virus infection]. Klin Padiatr 2001;213:63–68.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schleiss MR. Vertically transmitted herpesvirus infections. Herpes 2003;10:4–11.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Elefsiniotis IS, Tsoumakas K, Papadakis M, Vlachos G, Saroglou G, Antsaklis A. Importance of maternal and cord blood viremia in pregnant women with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Eur J Intern Med 2011;22:182–186.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tsekoura EA, Konstantinidou A, Papadopoulou S, Athanasiou S, Spanakis N, Kafetzis D, Antsaklis A, Tsakris A. Adenovirus genome in the placenta: association with histological chorioamnionitis and preterm birth. J Med Virol 2010;82:1379–1383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papadakis MA, Elefsiniotis IS, Vlahos G, Daskalakis G, Barbatis C, Antsaklis A. Intrauterine-transplacental transmission of hepatitis B virus (HBV) from hepatitis B e antigen negative (precore mutant, G1896A) chronic HBV infected mothers to their infants. Preliminary results of a prospective study. J Clin Virol 2007;38:181–183.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leikin E, Lysikiewicz A, Garry D, Tejani N. Intrauterine transmission of hepatitis A virus. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88:690–691.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leikin EL, Reinus JF, Schmell E, Tejani N. Epidemiologic predictors of hepatitis C virus infection in pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:529–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanmaz HG, Erdeve O, Ogz SS, Uras N, Celen S, Korukluoglu G, Zergeroglu S, et al. Placental transmission of novel pandemic influenza a virus. Fetal Pediatr Pathol 2011;30:280–285.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tejani N, Klein SW, Kaplan M. Subclinical herpes simplex genitalis infections in the perinatal period. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;135:547.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang X, Zhu Q, Rao H. Maternal-fetal transmission of human papillomavirus. Chin Med J 1998;111:726–727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syrjänen S, Puranen M. Human papillomavirus infections in children: the potential role of maternal transmission. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 2000;11:259–274.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deng D, Wen L, Chen W, Ling X. Asymptomatic genital infection of human papillomavirus in pregnant women and the vertical transmission route. J Huazhong Univ Sci Technol Med Sci 2005;25:343–345.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Worda C, Huber A, Hudelist G, Schatten C, Leipold H, Czerwenka K, Eppel W. Prevalence of cervical and intrauterine human papillomavirus infection in the third trimester in asymptomatic women. J Soc Gynecol Investig 2005;12:440–444.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Syrjänen S. Current concepts on human papillomavirus infections in children. APMIS 2010;118:494–509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaneko M, Sameshima H, Ikenoue T, Minematsu T. A two-step strategy for detecting intrauterine cytomegalovirus infection with clinical manifestations in the mother, fetus, and newborn. Jpn J Infect Dis 2006;59:363–366.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ziyaeyan M, Alborzi A, Abbasian A, Kalani M, Moravej A, Nasiri J, Amiri A, et al. Detection of HCMV DNA in placenta, amniotic fluid and fetuses of seropositive women by nested PCR. Eur J Pediatr 2007;166:723–726.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nigro G, La Torre R, Mazzocco M, Coacci F, Riosa B, D’Emilio C, Cosmi EV. Multi-system cytomegalovirus fetopathy by recurrent infection in a pregnant woman with hepatitis B. Prenat Diagn 1999;19:1070–1072.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romagnani P, Lasagni L, Annunziato F, Serio M, Romagnani S. CXC chemokines: the regulatory link between inflammation and angiogenesis. Trends Immunol 2004;25:201–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim CJ, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Yoo W, Dong Z, Topping V, Gotsch F, et al. The frequency, clinical significance, and pathological features of chronic chorioamnionitis: a lesion associated with spontaneous preterm birth. Mod Pathol 2010;23:1000–1011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oggé G, Romero R, Lee DC, Gotsch F, Than NG, Lee J, Chaiworapongsa T, et al. Chronic chorioamnionitis displays distinct alterations of the amniotic fluid proteome. J Pathol 2011;223:553–565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim SM, Romero R, Lee J, Lee SM, Park C, Park JS, Yoon BH. The frequency and clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in women with preterm uterine contractility but without cervical change: do the diagnostic criteria for preterm labor need to be changed? J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012; Apr 25 E-pub ahead of print.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SE, Romero R, Park CW, Jun JK, Yoon BH. The frequency and significance of intraamniotic inflammation in patients with cervical insufficiency. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008;198:633.e1–633.e8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romero R, Espinoza J, Gonçalves LF, Kusanovic JP, Friel LA, Nien JK. Inflammation in preterm and term labour and delivery. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2006;11:317–326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Moon JB, Oh SY, Han SY, Kim JC, Shim SS. The frequency and clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in patients with a positive cervical fetal fibronectin. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;185:1137–1142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackwell S, Romero R, Chaiworapongsa T, Refuerzo J, Gervasi MT, Yoshimatsu J, Espinoza J, et al. Unexplained fetal death is associated with changes in the adaptive limb of the maternal immune response consistent with prior antigenic exposure. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003;14:241–246.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pacora P, Chaiworapongsa T, Maymon E, Kim YM, Gomez R, Yoon BH, Ghezzi F, et al. Funisitis and chorionic vasculitis: the histological counterpart of the fetal inflammatory response syndrome. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2002;11:18–25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Moon J, Chaiworapongsa T, Espinoza J, Kim YM, Edwin S, et al. Differences in the fetal interleukin-6 response to microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity between term and preterm gestation. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003;13:32–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yoon BH, Romero R, Shim JY, Shim SS, Kim CJ, Jun JK. C-reactive protein in umbilical cord blood: a simple and widely available clinical method to assess the risk of amniotic fluid infection and funisitis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003;14:85–90.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alpay SZ, Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R, Hussein Y, Kusanovic JP, Xu Y, Dong Z, Kim CJ, Hassan SS. Interleukin-19 in fetal systemic inflammation. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012; Apr 3 E-pub ahead of print.
   Google Scholar
• Romero R, Gomez R, Ghezzi F, Yoon BH, Mazor M, Edwin SS, Berry SM. A fetal systemic inflammatory response is followed by the spontaneous onset of preterm parturition. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:186–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aldo PB, Mulla MJ, Romero R, Mor G, Abrahams VM. Viral ssRNA induces first trimester trophoblast apoptosis through an inflammatory mechanism. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010;64:27–37.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrahams VM, Aldo PB, Murphy SP, Visintin I, Koga K, Wilson G, Romero R, et al. TLR6 modulates first trimester trophoblast responses to peptidoglycan. J Immunol 2008;180:6035–6043.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrahams VM, Visintin I, Aldo PB, Guller S, Romero R, Mor G. A role for TLRs in the regulation of immune cell migration by first trimester trophoblast cells. J Immunol 2005;175:8096–8104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mor G, Romero R, Aldo PB, Abrahams VM. Is the trophoblast an immune regulator? The role of Toll-like receptors during pregnancy. Crit Rev Immunol 2005;25:375–388.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Agrawal V, Hirsch E. Intrauterine infection and preterm labor. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2012;17:12–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang H, Hirsch E. Bacterially-induced preterm labor and regulation of prostaglandin-metabolizing enzyme expression in mice: the role of toll-like receptor 4. Biol Reprod 2003;69:1957–1963.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrahams VM, Schaefer TM, Fahey JV, Visintin I, Wright JA, Aldo PB, Romero R, et al. Expression and secretion of antiviral factors by trophoblast cells following stimulation by the TLR-3 agonist, Poly(I: C). Hum Reprod 2006;21:2432–2439.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackwell S, Romero R, Chaiworapongsa T, Kim YM, Bujold E, Espinoza J, Camacho N, et al. Maternal and fetal inflammatory responses in unexplained fetal death. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003;14:151–157.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Phillippe M. Pandemic influenza: what obstetricians need to know. Obstet Gynecol 2009;114:206–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloom-Feshbach K, Simonsen L, Viboud C, Mølbak K, Miller MA, Gottfredsson M, Andreasen V. Natality decline and miscarriages associated with the 1918 influenza pandemic: the Scandinavian and United States experiences. J Infect Dis 2011;204:1157–1164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaRussa P. Pandemic novel 2009 H1N1 influenza: what have we learned? Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2011;32:393–399.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nishiura H. Excess risk of stillbirth during the 1918-1920 influenza pandemic in Japan. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2009;147:115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravenholt RT, Foege WH. 1918 influenza, encephalitis lethargica, parkinsonism. Lancet 1982;2:860–864.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein L. Editorial: Influenza-1918, a revisit? N Engl J Med 1976;294:1058–1060.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nuzum JW, Pilot I, Stangl FH, Bonar BE. 1918 pandemic influenza and pneumonia in a large civil hospital. IMJ Ill Med J 1976;150:612–616.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fisher D, Hui DS, Gao Z, Lee C, Oh MD, Cao B, Hien TT, et al. Pandemic response lessons from influenza H1N1 2009 in Asia. Respirology 2011;16:876–882.
   Google Scholar
• Mosby LG, Rasmussen SA, Jamieson DJ. 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in pregnancy: a systematic review of the literature. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;205:10–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falagas ME, Cholevas NV, Kapaskelis AM, Vouloumanou EK, Michalopoulos A, Rafailidis PI. Epidemiological aspects of 2009 H1N1 influenza: the accumulating experience from the Northern Hemisphere. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2010;29:1327–1347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan SJ, Jacobson RM, Dowdle WR, Poland GA. 2009 H1N1 influenza. Mayo Clin Proc 2010;85:64–76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolan SM, Cox S, Tepper N, Ruddy D, Rasmussen SA, MacFarlane K. Pharmacists’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding influenza vaccination and treatment of pregnant women. J Am Pharm Assoc (2003) 2012;52:43–51.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Panda B, Panda A, Riley LE. Selected viral infections in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 2010;37:321–331.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb SA, Pettilä V, Seppelt I, Bellomo R, Bailey M, Cooper DJ, Cretikos M, et al.; ANZIC Influenza Investigators. Critical care services and 2009 H1N1 influenza in Australia and New Zealand. N Engl J Med 2009;361:1925–1934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kerkhove MD, Vandemaele KA, Shinde V, Jaramillo-Gutierrez G, Koukounari A, Donnelly CA, Carlino LO, et al.; WHO Working Group for Risk Factors for Severe H1N1pdm Infection. Risk factors for severe outcomes following 2009 influenza A (H1N1) infection: a global pooled analysis. PLoS Med 2011;8:e1001053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• To KK, Wong SS, Li IW, Hung IF, Tse H, Woo PC, Chan KH, Yuen KY. Concurrent comparison of epidemiology, clinical presentation and outcome between adult patients suffering from the pandemic influenza A (H1N1) 2009 virus and the seasonal influenza A virus infection. Postgrad Med J 2010;86:515–521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singanayagam A, Singanayagam A, Wood V, Chalmers JD. Factors associated with severe illness in pandemic 2009 influenza a (H1N1) infection: implications for triage in primary and secondary care. J Infect 2011;63:243–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siston AM, Rasmussen SA, Honein MA, Fry AM, Seib K, Callaghan WM, Louie J, et al.; Pandemic H1N1 Influenza in Pregnancy Working Group. Pandemic 2009 influenza A(H1N1) virus illness among pregnant women in the United States. JAMA 2010;303:1517–1525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen SA, Jamieson DJ, Macfarlane K, Cragan JD, Williams J, Henderson Z; Pandemic Influenza and Pregnancy Working Group. Pandemic influenza and pregnant women: summary of a meeting of experts. Am J Public Health 2009;99 Suppl 2:S248–S254.
   Google Scholar
• Rasmussen SA, Kissin DM, Yeung LF, MacFarlane K, Chu SY, Turcios-Ruiz RM, Mitchell EW, et al.; Pandemic Influenza and Pregnancy Working Group. Preparing for influenza after 2009 H1N1: special considerations for pregnant women and newborns. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:S13–S20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsey C, Kumar A. H1N1: viral pneumonia as a cause of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Opin Crit Care 2011;17:64–71.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pierce M, Kurinczuk JJ, Spark P, Brocklehurst P, Knight M; UKOSS. Perinatal outcomes after maternal 2009/H1N1 infection: national cohort study. BMJ 2011;342:d3214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pano-Pardo JR, Rodriguez-Bano J, Martinez-Sanchez N, Viasus D, Farinas MC, Leyes M, Lopez-Medrano F, Pachon J, Torre-Cisneros J, Oteo JA, et al. Prognosis of 2009 A(H1N1) influenza in hospitalized pregnant women in a context of early diagnosis and antiviral therapy. Antivir Ther 2011;10.
   Google Scholar
• Moreno R, Rhodes A. From the bedside to the bench: how to improve the care of critically ill pregnant patients with influenza. Crit Care Med 2011;39:1199–1200.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Louie JK, Acosta M, Jamieson DJ, Honein MA; California Pandemic (H1N1) Working Group. Severe 2009 H1N1 influenza in pregnant and postpartum women in California. N Engl J Med 2010;362:27–35.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karlsson EA, Marcelin G, Webby RJ, Schultz-Cherry S. Review on the impact of pregnancy and obesity on influenza virus infection. Influenza Other Respi Viruses 2012.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jamieson DJ, Honein MA, Rasmussen SA, Williams JL, Swerdlow DL, Biggerstaff MS, Lindstrom S, et al.; Novel Influenza A (H1N1) Pregnancy Working Group. H1N1 2009 influenza virus infection during pregnancy in the USA. Lancet 2009;374:451–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jamieson DJ, Rasmussen SA, Uyeki TM, Weinbaum C. Pandemic influenza and pregnancy revisited: lessons learned from 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1). Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:S1–S3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jain S, Kamimoto L, Bramley AM, Schmitz AM, Benoit SR, Louie J, Sugerman DE, et al.; 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) Virus Hospitalizations Investigation Team. Hospitalized patients with 2009 H1N1 influenza in the United States, April-June 2009. N Engl J Med 2009;361:1935–1944.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girard MP, Tam JS, Assossou OM, Kieny MP. The 2009 A (H1N1) influenza virus pandemic: A review. Vaccine 2010;28:4895–4902.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fridman D, Steinberg E, Azhar E, Weedon J, Wilson TE, Minkoff H. Predictors of H1N1 vaccination in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:S124–S127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiore AE, Shay DK, Broder K, Iskander JK, Uyeki TM, Mootrey G, Bresee JS, Cox NS; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). Prevention and control of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2008. MMWR Recomm Rep 2008;57:1–60.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dickson M, Anders N. Influenza AH1N1v in pregnancy. BJOG 2011;118:1140; author reply 1140–1140; author reply 1141.
   Google Scholar
• Davies A, Jones D, Bailey M, Beca J, Bellomo R, Blackwell N, Forrest P, et al.; Australia and New Zealand Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ANZ ECMO) Influenza Investigators. Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation for 2009 Influenza A(H1N1) Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. JAMA 2009;302:1888–1895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creanga AA, Kamimoto L, Newsome K, D’Mello T, Jamieson DJ, Zotti ME, Arnold KE, et al. Seasonal and 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection during pregnancy: a population-based study of hospitalized cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:S38–S45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson A, Thung SF, Norwitz ER. H1N1 Influenza in Pregnancy: What All Obstetric Care Providers Ought to Know. Rev Obstet Gynecol 2009;2:139–145.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bassetti M, Parisini A, Calzi A, Pallavicini FM, Cassola G, Artioli S, Anselmo M, et al.; Ligurian H1N1 Collaborative Group. Risk factors for severe complications of the novel influenza A (H1N1): analysis of patients hospitalized in Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2011;17:247–250.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bahloul M, Chaari A, Samet M, Chtara K, Ben Rejab I, Dammak H, Bouaziz M. Pulmonary capillary leak syndrome following influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in pregnant and postpartum women. J Infect 2011;63:317–319.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Anderson BL, Rouse DJ, Fitzsimmons C. Clinical characteristics of pregnant women with influenza-like illness during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic and use of a standardized management algorithm. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:S31–S37.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Black S, Eskola J, Siegrist CA, Halsey N, Macdonald N, Law B, Miller E, et al. Importance of background rates of disease in assessment of vaccine safety during mass immunisation with pandemic H1N1 influenza vaccines. Lancet 2009;374:2115–2122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangtani P, Mak TK, Pfeifer D. Pandemic H1N1 infection in pregnant women in the USA. Lancet 2009;374:429–430.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sacks G, Sargent I, Redman C. An innate view of human pregnancy. Immunol Today 1999;20:114–118.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mor G, Cardenas I. The immune system in pregnancy: a unique complexity. Am J Reprod Immunol 2010;63:425–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashshi AM, Cooper RJ, Klapper PE, Al-Jiffri O, Moore L. Detection of human herpes virus 6 DNA in fetal hydrops. Lancet 2000;355:1519–1520.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Adams O, Krempe C, Kögler G, Wernet P, Scheid A. Congenital infections with human herpesvirus 6. J Infect Dis 1998;178:544–546.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall CB, Caserta MT, Schnabel KC, Boettrich C, McDermott MP, Lofthus GK, Carnahan JA, Dewhurst S. Congenital infections with human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6) and human herpesvirus 7 (HHV7). J Pediatr 2004;145:472–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caserta MT, McDermott MP, Dewhurst S, Schnabel K, Carnahan JA, Gilbert L, Lathan G, et al. Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6) DNA persistence and reactivation in healthy children. J Pediatr 2004;145:478–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baringer JR. Herpes simplex infections of the nervous system. Neurol Clin 2008;26:657–74, viii.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theodore WH, Epstein L, Gaillard WD, Shinnar S, Wainwright MS, Jacobson S. Human herpes virus 6B: a possible role in epilepsy? Epilepsia 2008;49:1828–1837.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tanaka-Taya K, Sashihara J, Kurahashi H, Amo K, Miyagawa H, Kondo K, Okada S, Yamanishi K. Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) is transmitted from parent to child in an integrated form and characterization of cases with chromosomally integrated HHV-6 DNA. J Med Virol 2004;73:465–473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbuckle JH, Medveczky MM, Luka J, Hadley SH, Luegmayr A, Ablashi D, Lund TC, et al. The latent human herpesvirus-6A genome specifically integrates in telomeres of human chromosomes in vivo and in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107:5563–5568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barzon L, Lavezzo E, Militello V, Toppo S, Palù G. Applications of next-generation sequencing technologies to diagnostic virology. Int J Mol Sci 2011;12:7861–7884.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baschat AA, Harman CR, Towbin JA, Weiner CP. Fetal sonographic abnormalities and intrauterine viral infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;182:S95.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mokili JL, Rohwer F, Dutilh BE. Metagenomics and future perspectives in virus discovery. Curr Opin Virol 2012;2:63–77.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Willner D, Thurber RV, Rohwer F.. Metagenomic signatures of 86 microbial and viral metagenomes. Environ Microbiol. 2009;11:1752–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards RA, Rohwer F.. Viral metagenomics. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005;3:504–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar