Role of epigenetic events in chemical carcinogenesis—a justification for incorporating epigenetic evaluations in cancer risk assessment

References

• Arita A, Costa M. 2009. Epigenetics in metal carcinogenesis: nickel, arsenic, chromium and cadmium. Metallomics 1:222–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagnyukova TV, Tryndyak VP, Montgomery B, Churchwell MI, Karpf AR, James SR, Muskhelishvili L, Beland FA, Pogribny IP. 2008. Genetic and epigenetic changes in rat preneoplastic liver tissue induced by 2-acetylaminofluorene. Carcinogenesis 29:638–646.
   Google Scholar
• Beland FA, Dooley KL, Jackson CD. 1982. Persistence of DNA adducts in rat liver and kidney after multiple doses of the carcinogen N-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene. Cancer Res 42:1348–1354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belinsky SA. 2005. Silencing of genes by promoter hypermethylation: key event in rodent and human lung cancer. Carcinogenesis 26:1481–1487.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beyersmann D. 2002. Effects of carcinogenic metals on gene expression. Toxicol Lett 127:63–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beyersmann D, Hartwig A. 2008. Carcinogenic metal compounds: recent insight into molecular and cellular mechanisms. Arch Toxicol 82:493–512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biggart NW, Costa M. 1986. Assessment of the uptake and mutagenicity of nickel chloride in salmonella tester strains. Mutat Res 175:209–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bitsch A, Klöhn PC, Hadjiolov N, Bergmann O, Neumann HG. 1999. New insights into carcinogenesis of the classical model arylamine 2-acetylaminofluorene. Cancer Lett 143:223–227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollati V, Baccarelli A, Hou L, Bonzini M, Fustinoni S, Cavallo D, Byun HM, Jiang J, Marinelli B, Pesatori AC, Bertazzi PA, Yang AS. 2007. Changes in DNA methylation patterns in subjects exposed to low-dose benzene. Cancer Res 67:876–880.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broday L, Peng W, Kuo MH, Salnikow K, Zoroddu M, Costa M. 2000. Nickel compounds are novel inhibitors of histone H4 acetylation. Cancer Res 60:238–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro R, Rivera I, Ravasco P, Camilo ME, Jakobs C, Blom HJ, de Almeida IT. 2004. 5,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) 677C–>T and 1298A–>C mutations are associated with DNA hypomethylation. J Med Genet 41:454–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chanda S, Dasgupta UB, Guhamazumder D, Gupta M, Chaudhuri U, Lahiri S, Das S, Ghosh N, Chatterjee D. 2006. DNA hypermethylation of promoter of gene p53 and p16 in arsenic-exposed people with and without malignancy. Toxicol Sci 89:431–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen H, Ke Q, Kluz T, Yan Y, Costa M. 2006. Nickel ions increase histone H3 lysine 9 dimethylation and induce transgene silencing. Mol Cell Biol 26:3728–3737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen RZ, Pettersson U, Beard C, Jackson-Grusby L, Jaenisch R. 1998. DNA hypomethylation leads to elevated mutation rates. Nature 395:89–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Counts JL, Sarmiento JI, Harbison ML, Downing JC, McClain RM, Goodman JL. 1996. Cell proliferation and global methylation status changes in mouse liver after phenobarbital and/or choline-devoid, methionine-deficient diet administration. Carcinogenesis 17:1251–1257.
   Google Scholar
• Cui X, Wakai T, Shirai Y, Hatakeyama K, Hirano S. 2006. Chronic oral exposure to inorganic arsenate interferes with methylation status of p16INK4a and RASSF1A and induces lung cancer in A/J mice. Toxicol Sci 91:372–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daskalos A, Nikolaidis G, Xinarianos G, Savvari P, Cassidy A, Zakopoulou R, Kotsinas A, Gorgoulis V, Field JK, Liloglou T. 2009. Hypomethylation of retrotransposable elements correlates with genomic instability in non-small cell lung cancer. Int J Cancer 124:81–87.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Smet C, Loriot A. 2010. DNA hypomethylation in cancer: epigenetic scars of a neoplastic journey. Epigenetics 5:206–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denissenko MF, Pao A, Tang M, Pfeifer GP. 1996. Preferential formation of benzo[a]pyrene adducts at lung cancer mutational hotspots in P53. Science 274:430–432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Divine KK, Pulling LC, Marron-Terada PG, Liechty KC, Kang T, Schwartz AG, Bocklage TJ, Coons TA, Gilliland FD, Belinsky SA. 2005. Multiplicity of abnormal promoter methylation in lung adenocarcinomas from smokers and never smokers. Int J Cancer 114:400–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doll R, Morgan LG, Speizer FE. 1970. Cancers of the lung and nasal sinuses in nickel workers. Br J Cancer 24:623–632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eden A, Gaudet F, Waghmare A, Jaenisch R. 2003. Chromosomal instability and tumors promoted by DNA hypomethylation. Science 300:455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehrlich M. 2009. DNA hypomethylation in cancer cells. Epigenomics 1:239–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esteller M. 2008. Epigenetics in cancer. N Engl J Med 358:1148–1159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinberg AP. 2008. Epigenetics at the epicenter of modern medicine. JAMA 299:1345–1350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinberg AP, Cui H, Ohlsson R. 2002. DNA methylation and genomic imprinting: insights from cancer into epigenetic mechanisms. Semin Cancer Biol 12:389–398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng Z, Hu W, Hu Y, Tang MS. 2006. Acrolein is a major cigarette-related lung cancer agent: preferential binding at p53 mutational hotspots and inhibition of DNA repair. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:15404–15409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glass DC, Gray CN, Jolley DJ, Gibbons C, Sim MR, Fritschi L, Adams GG, Bisby JA, Manuell R. 2003. Leukemia risk associated with low-level benzene exposure. Epidemiology 14:569–577.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golebiowski F, Kasprzak KS. 2005. Inhibition of core histones acetylation by carcinogenic nickel(II). Mol Cell Biochem 279:133–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzales AJ, Christensen JG, Preston RJ, Goldsworthy TL, Tlsty TD, Fox TR. 1998. Attenuation of G1 checkpoint function by the non-genotoxic carcinogen phenobarbital. Carcinogenesis 19:1173–1183.
   Google Scholar
• Goodman JI, Augustine KA, Cunnningham ML, Dixon D, Dragan YP, Falls JG, Rasoulpour RJ, Sills RC, Storer RD, Wolf DC, Pettit SD. 2010. What do we need to know prior to thinking about incorporating an epigenetic evaluation into safety assessments? Toxicol Sci 116:375–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Govindarajan B, Klafter R, Miller MS, Mansur C, Mizesko M, Bai X, LaMontagne K Jr, Arbiser JL. 2002. Reactive oxygen-induced carcinogenesis causes hypermethylation of p16(Ink4a) and activation of MAP kinase. Mol Med 8:1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grønbaek K, Treppendahl M, Asmar F, Guldberg P. 2008. Epigenetic changes in cancer as potential targets for prophylaxis and maintenance therapy. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 103:389–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. 2000. The hallmarks of cancer. Cell 100:57–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes RB, Songnian Y, Dosemeci M, Linet M. 2001. Benzene and lymphohematopoietic malignancies in humans. Am J Ind Med 40:117–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hecht SS. 2002. Cigarette smoking and lung cancer: chemical mechanisms and approaches to prevention. Lancet Oncol 3:461–469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heflich RH, Neft RE. 1994. Genetic toxicity of 2-acetylaminofluorene, 2-aminofluorene and some of their metabolites and model metabolites. Mutat Res 318:73–114.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hinshelwood RA, Clark SJ. 2008. Breast cancer epigenetics: normal human mammary epithelial cells as a model system. J Mol Med 86:1315–1328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffmann D, Hoffmann I, El-Bayoumy K. 2001. The less harmful cigarette: a controversial issue, a tribute to Ernst L. Wynder. Chem Res Toxicol 14:767–790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard G, Eiges R, Gaudet F, Jaenisch R, Eden A. 2008. Activation and transposition of endogenous retroviral elements in hypomethylation induced tumors in mice. Oncogene 27:404–408.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• IARC. 1990. Report of the International Committee on nickel carcinogenesis in Man. Scand J Work Environ Health 16:1–82.
   Google Scholar
• IARC. 2004. Tobacco smoke and involuntary smoking. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, p. 83.
   Google Scholar
• Iizuka M, Smith MM. 2003. Functional consequences of histone modifications. Curr Opin Genet Dev 13:154–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Issa JP. 2004. CpG island methylator phenotype in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 4:988–993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen TJ, Wozniak RJ, Eblin KE, Wnek SM, Gandolfi AJ, Futscher BW. 2009. Epigenetic mediated transcriptional activation of WNT5A participates in arsenical-associated malignant transformation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 235:39–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones PA, Baylin SB. 2007. The epigenomics of cancer. Cell 128:683–692.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones PA, Liang G. 2009. Rethinking how DNA methylation patterns are maintained. Nat Rev Genet 10:805–811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kann S, Estes C, Reichard JF, Huang MY, Sartor MA, Schwemberger S, Chen Y, Dalton TP, Shertzer HG, Xia Y, Puga A. 2005. Butylhydroquinone protects cells genetically deficient in glutathione biosynthesis from arsenite-induced apoptosis without significantly changing their prooxidant status. Toxicol Sci 87:365–384.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Karaczyn AA, Golebiowski F, Kasprzak KS. 2005. Truncation, deamidation, and oxidation of histone H2B in cells cultured with nickel(II). Chem Res Toxicol 18:1934–1942.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JS, Kim H, Shim YM, Han J, Park J, Kim DH. 2004. Aberrant methylation of the FHIT gene in chronic smokers with early stage squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Carcinogenesis 25:2165–2171.
   Google Scholar
• Klein CB, Kargacin B, Su L, Cosentino S, Snow ET, Costa M. 1994. Metal mutagenesis in transgenic Chinese hamster cell lines. Environ Health Perspect 102 (Suppl 3):63–67.
   Google Scholar
• Kondo K, Takahashi Y, Hirose Y, Nagao T, Tsuyuguchi M, Hashimoto M, Ochiai A, Monden Y, Tangoku A. 2006. The reduced expression and aberrant methylation of p16(INK4a) in chromate workers with lung cancer. Lung Cancer 53:295–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kostka G, Urbanek K, Ludwicki JK. 2007. The effect of phenobarbital on the methylation level of the p16 promoter region in rat liver. Toxicology 239:127–135.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kostka G, Urbanek-Olejnik K, Wiadrowska B, Bankowski R. 2008. [Phenobarbital-induced hypermethylation of the p53 promoter region in the liver of Wistar rats]. Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 59:455–465.
   Google Scholar
• Kouzarides T. 2007. Chromatin modifications and their function. Cell 128:693–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeBaron MJ, Rasoulpour RJ, Klapacz J, Ellis-Hutchings RG, Hollnagel HM, Gollapudi BB. 2010. Epigenetics and chemical safety assessment. Mutat Res 705:83–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee YW, Klein CB, Kargacin B, Salnikow K, Kitahara J, Dowjat K, Zhitkovich A, Christie NT, Costa M. 1995. Carcinogenic nickel silences gene expression by chromatin condensation and DNA methylation: a new model for epigenetic carcinogens. Mol Cell Biol 15:2547–2557.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lennartsson A, Ekwall K. 2009. Histone modification patterns and epigenetic codes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1790:863–868.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu F, Killian JK, Yang M, Walker RL, Hong JA, Zhang M, Davis S, Zhang Y, Hussain M, Xi S, Rao M, Meltzer PA, Schrump DS. 2010. Epigenomic alterations and gene expression profiles in respiratory epithelia exposed to cigarette smoke condensate. Oncogene 29:3650–3664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loeb LA, Harris CC. 2008. Advances in chemical carcinogenesis: a historical review and prospective. Cancer Res 68:6863–6872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu H, Shi X, Costa M, Huang C. 2005. Carcinogenic effect of nickel compounds. Mol Cell Biochem 279:45–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lübbert M, Oster W, Ludwig WD, Ganser A, Mertelsmann R, Herrmann F. 1992. A switch toward demethylation is associated with the expression of myeloperoxidase in acute myeloblastic and promyelocytic leukemias. Blood 80:2066–2073.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacLeod MC. 1996. A possible role in chemical carcinogenesis for epigenetic, heritable changes in gene expression. Mol Carcinog 15:241–250.
   Google Scholar
• Marlowe J, Teo SS, Chibout SD, Pognan F, Moggs J. 2009. Mapping the epigenome—impact for toxicology. EXS 99:259–288.
   Google Scholar
• Marsit CJ, Karagas MR, Danaee H, Liu M, Andrew A, Schned A, Nelson HH, Kelsey KT. 2006. Carcinogen exposure and gene promoter hypermethylation in bladder cancer. Carcinogenesis 27:112–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mass MJ, Wang L. 1997. Arsenic alters cytosine methylation patterns of the promoter of the tumor suppressor gene p53 in human lung cells: a model for a mechanism of carcinogenesis. Mutat Res 386:263–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melki JR, Vincent PC, Clark SJ. 1999. Concurrent DNA hypermethylation of multiple genes in acute myeloid leukemia. Cancer Res 59:3730–3740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikkelsen TS, Ku M, Jaffe DB, Issac B, Lieberman E, Giannoukos G, Alvarez P, Brockman W, Kim TK, Koche RP, Lee W, Mendenhall E, O’Donovan A, Presser A, Russ C, Xie X, Meissner A, Wernig M, Jaenisch R, Nusbaum C, Lander ES, Bernstein BE. 2007. Genome-wide maps of chromatin state in pluripotent and lineage-committed cells. Nature 448:553–560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller JA. 1970. Carcinogenesis by chemicals: an overview—G. H. A. Clowes memorial lecture. Cancer Res 30:559–576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss TJ, Wallrath LL. 2007. Connections between epigenetic gene silencing and human disease. Mutat Res 618:163–174.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nephew KP, Huang TH. 2003. Epigenetic gene silencing in cancer initiation and progression. Cancer Lett 190:125–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann HG. 2007. Aromatic amines in experimental cancer research: tissue-specific effects, an old problem and new solutions. Crit Rev Toxicol 37:211–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann HG, Ambs S, Bitsch A. 1994. The role of nongenotoxic mechanisms in arylamine carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect 102 (Suppl 6):173–176.
   Google Scholar
• Nickens KP, Patierno SR, Ceryak S. 2010. Chromium genotoxicity: a double-edged sword. Chem Biol Interact 188:276–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen CT, Weisenberger DJ, Velicescu M, Gonzales FA, Lin JC, Liang G, Jones PA. 2002. Histone H3–lysine 9 methylation is associated with aberrant gene silencing in cancer cells and is rapidly reversed by 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine. Cancer Res 62:6456–6461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ooi SK, O’Donnell AH, Bestor TH. 2009. Mammalian cytosine methylation at a glance. J Cell Sci 122:2787–2791.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters AH, Mermoud JE, O’Carroll D, Pagani M, Schweizer D, Brockdorff N, Jenuwein T. 2002. Histone H3 lysine 9 methylation is an epigenetic imprint of facultative heterochromatin. Nat Genet 30:77–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips JM, Goodman JI. 2008. Identification of genes that may play critical roles in phenobarbital (PB)-induced liver tumorigenesis due to altered DNA methylation. Toxicol Sci 104:86–99.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pogribny IP, Muskhelishvili L, Tryndyak VP, Beland FA. 2011. The role of epigenetic events in genotoxic hepatocarcinogenesis induced by 2-acetylaminofluorene. Mutat Res (In press).
   Google Scholar
• Pogribny IP, Rusyn I, Beland FA. 2008. Epigenetic aspects of genotoxic and non-genotoxic hepatocarcinogenesis: studies in rodents. Environ Mol Mutagen 49:9–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pogribny IP, Tryndyak VP, Boureiko A, Melnyk S, Bagnyukova TV, Montgomery B, Rusyn I. 2008. Mechanisms of peroxisome proliferator-induced DNA hypomethylation in rat liver. Mutat Res 644:17–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pogribny IP, Tryndyak VP, Woods CG, Witt SE, Rusyn I. 2007. Epigenetic effects of the continuous exposure to peroxisome proliferator WY-14,643 in mouse liver are dependent upon peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha. Mutat Res 625:62–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preston RJ. 2007. Epigenetic processes and cancer risk assessment. Mutat Res 616:7–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor RN. 2004. The global smoking epidemic: a history and status report. Clin Lung Cancer 5:371–376.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ray JS, Harbison ML, McClain RM, Goodman JI. 1994. Alterations in the methylation status and expression of the raf oncogene in phenobarbital-induced and spontaneous B6C3F1 mouse live tumors. Mol Carcinog 9:155–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice JC, Briggs SD, Ueberheide B, Barber CM, Shabanowitz J, Hunt DF, Shinkai Y, Allis CD. 2003. Histone methyltransferases direct different degrees of methylation to define distinct chromatin domains. Mol Cell 12:1591–1598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson KD. 2002. DNA methylation and chromatin—unraveling the tangled web. Oncogene 21:5361–5379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rollins RA, Haghighi F, Edwards JR, Das R, Zhang MQ, Ju J, Bestor TH. 2006. Large-scale structure of genomic methylation patterns. Genome Res 16:157–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ropero S, Esteller M. 2007. The role of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in human cancer. Mol Oncol 1:19–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossman TG. 2003. Mechanism of arsenic carcinogenesis: an integrated approach. Mutat Res 533:37–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo AL, Thiagalingam A, Pan H, Califano J, Cheng KH, Ponte JF, Chinnappan D, Nemani P, Sidransky D, Thiagalingam S. 2005. Differential DNA hypermethylation of critical genes mediates the stage-specific tobacco smoke-induced neoplastic progression of lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res 11:2466–2470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salnikow K, Zhitkovich A. 2008. Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms in metal carcinogenesis and cocarcinogenesis: nickel, arsenic, and chromium. Chem Res Toxicol 21:28–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savitz DA, Andrews KW. 1997. Review of epidemiologic evidence on benzene and lymphatic and hematopoietic cancers. Am J Ind Med 31:287–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma S, Kelly TK, Jones PA. 2010. Epigenetics in cancer. Carcinogenesis 31:27–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharrard RM, Royds JA, Rogers S, Shorthouse AJ. 1992. Patterns of methylation of the c-myc gene in human colorectal cancer progression. Br J Cancer 65:667–672.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shimizu K, Itsuzaki Y, Fujii H, Honoki K, Tsujiuchi T. 2008. Reduced expression of the Rassf1a gene and its aberrant DNA methylation in pancreatic duct adenocarcinomas induced by N-nitrosobis(2-oxopropyl)amine in hamsters. Mol Carcinog 47:80–87.
   Google Scholar
• Shuker DE. 2002. The enemy at the gates? DNA adducts as biomarkers of exposure to exogenous and endogenous genotoxic agents. Toxicol Lett 134:51–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva Lima B, Van der Laan JW. 2000. Mechanisms of nongenotoxic carcinogenesis and assessment of the human hazard. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 32:135–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simeonova PP, Luster MI. 2000. Mechanisms of arsenic carcinogenicity: genetic or epigenetic mechanisms? J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 19:281–286.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith LE, Denissenko MF, Bennett WP, Li H, Amin S, Tang M, Pfeifer GP. 2000. Targeting of lung cancer mutational hotspots by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. J Natl Cancer Inst 92:803–811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith MT, Jones RM, Smith AH. 2007. Benzene exposure and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16:385–391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subrahmanyam VV, Ross D, Eastmond DA, Smith MT. 1991. Potential role of free radicals in benzene-induced myelotoxicity and leukemia. Free Radic Biol Med 11:495–515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suijkerbuijk KP, van Diest PJ, van der Wall E. 2011. Improving early breast cancer detection: focus on methylation. Ann Oncol 22:24–29.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sun H, Zhou X, Chen H, Li Q, Costa M. 2009. Modulation of histone methylation and MLH1 gene silencing by hexavalent chromium. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 237:258–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taioli E. 2008. Gene–environment interaction in tobacco-related cancers. Carcinogenesis 29:1467–1474.
   Google Scholar
• Takahashi Y, Kondo K, Hirose T, Nakagawa H, Tsuyuguchi M, Hashimoto M, Sano T, Ochiai A, Monden Y. 2005. Microsatellite instability and protein expression of the DNA mismatch repair gene, hMLH1, of lung cancer in chromate-exposed workers. Mol Carcinog 42:150–158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tam AS, Devereux TR, Patel AC, Foley JF, Maronpot RR, Massey TE. 2003. Perturbations of the Ink4a/Arf gene locus in aflatoxin B1-induced mouse lung tumors. Carcinogenesis 24:121–132.
   Google Scholar
• Tao L, Ge R, Xie M, Kramer PM, Pereira MA. 1999. Effect of trichloroethylene on DNA methylation and expression of early-intermediate protooncogenes in the liver of B6C3F1 mice. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 13:231–237.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tao L, Yang S, Xie M, Kramer PM, Pereira MA. 2000. Effect of trichloroethylene and its metabolites, dichloroacetic acid and trichloroacetic acid, on the methylation and expression of c-Jun and c-Myc protooncogenes in mouse liver: prevention by methionine. Toxicol Sci 54:399–407.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ting AH, McGarvey KM, Baylin SB. 2006. The cancer epigenome—components and functional correlates. Genes Dev 20:3215–3231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsujiuchi T, Sugata E, Masaoka T, Onishi M, Fujii H, Shimizu K, Honoki K. 2007. Expression and DNA methylation patterns of Tslc1 and Dal-1 genes in hepatocellular carcinomas induced by N-nitrosodiethylamine in rats. Cancer Sci 98:943–948.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vaissière T, Hung RJ, Zaridze D, Moukeria A, Cuenin C, Fasolo V, Ferro G, Paliwal A, Hainaut P, Brennan P, Tost J, Boffetta P, Herceg Z. 2009. Quantitative analysis of DNA methylation profiles in lung cancer identifies aberrant DNA methylation of specific genes and its association with gender and cancer risk factors. Cancer Res 69:243–252.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW. 2004. Cancer genes and the pathways they control. Nat Med 10:789–799.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walser T, Cui X, Yanagawa J, Lee JM, Heinrich E, Lee G, Sharma S, Dubinett SM. 2008. Smoking and lung cancer: the role of inflammation. Proc Am Thorac Soc 5:811–815.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watson RE, Goodman JI. 2002. Effects of phenobarbital on DNA methylation in GC-rich regions of hepatic DNA from mice that exhibit different levels of susceptibility to liver tumorigenesis. Toxicol Sci 68:51–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wild CP. 2008. Environmental exposure measurement in cancer epidemiology. Mutagenesis 24:117–125.
   Google Scholar
• Yan Y, Kluz T, Zhang P, Chen HB, Costa M. 2003. Analysis of specific lysine histone H3 and H4 acetylation and methylation status in clones of cells with a gene silenced by nickel exposure. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 190:272–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoon BI, Hirabayashi Y, Kawasaki Y, Kodama Y, Kaneko T, Kanno J, Kim DY, Fujii-Kuriyama Y, Inoue T. 2002. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor mediates benzene-induced hematotoxicity. Toxicol Sci 70:150–156.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Youlden DR, Cramb SM, Baade PD. 2008. The International Epidemiology of Lung Cancer: geographical distribution and secular trends. J Thorac Oncol 3:819–831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, Eastmond DA, Smith MT. 2002. The nature of chromosomal aberrations detected in humans exposed to benzene. Crit Rev Toxicol 32:1–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang L, McHale CM, Rothman N, Li G, Ji Z, Vermeulen R, Hubbard AE, Ren X, Shen M, Rappaport SM, North M, Skibola CF, Yin S, Vulpe C, Chanock SJ, Smith MT, Lan Q. 2010. Systems biology of human benzene exposure. Chem Biol Interact 184:86–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang YJ, Rossner P Jr, Chen Y, Agrawal M, Wang Q, Wang L, Ahsan H, Yu MW, Lee PH, Santella RM. 2006. Aflatoxin B1 and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon adducts, p53 mutations and p16 methylation in liver tissue and plasma of hepatocellular carcinoma patients. Int J Cancer 119:985–991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao CQ, Young MR, Diwan BA, Coogan TP, Waalkes MP. 1997. Association of arsenic-induced malignant transformation with DNA hypomethylation and aberrant gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:10907–10912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou X, Li Q, Arita A, Sun H, Costa M. 2009. Effects of nickel, chromate, and arsenite on histone 3 lysine methylation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 236:78–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou X, Sun H, Ellen TP, Chen H, Costa M. 2008. Arsenite alters global histone H3 methylation. Carcinogenesis 29:1831–1836.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ziech D, Franco R, Pappa A, Malamou-Mitsi V, Georgakila S, Georgakilas AG, Panayiotidis MI. 2010. The role of epigenetics in environmental and occupational carcinogenesis. Chem Biol Interact 188:340–349.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar