Botulism, where are we now?

References

• Smith LD, Sugiyama H. Botulism: The Organism, Its Toxins, The Disease. 2nd ed.Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Meyer KF. The rise and fall of botulism. Calif Med 1973; 118: 63–64.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dembek ZF, Smith LA, Rusnak JM. Botulism: cause, effects, diagnosis, clinical and laboratory identification, and treatment modalities. Disaster Med Public Health Prep 2007; 1: 122–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel J. Diagnosis and treatment of botulism: a century later, clinical suspicion remains the cornerstone. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 1674–1675.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherington M. Botulism: update and review. Semin Neurol 2004; 24: 155–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erbguth FJ, Naumann M. On the first systematic descriptions of botulism and botulinum toxin by Justinus Kerner (1786–1862). J Hist Neurosci 2000; 9: 218–220.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Erbguth FJ, Naumann M. Historical aspects of botulinum toxin: Justinus Kerner (1786–1862) and the “sausage poison”. Neurology 1999; 53: 1850–1853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erbguth FJ. Historical notes on botulism, Clostridium botulinum, botulinum toxin, and the idea of the therapeutic use of the toxin. Mov Disord 2004; 19 (Suppl 8):S2–S6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torrens JK. Clostridium botulinum was named because of association with “sausage poisoning.” BMJ 1998; 316: 151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Ermengem E. Classics in infectious diseases. A new anaerobic bacillus and its relation to botulism. E. van Ermengem. Originally published as “Ueber einen neuen anaëroben Bacillus und seine Beziehungen zum Botulismus” in Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten 26: 1–56, 1897. Rev Infect Dis 1979; 1: 701–719.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Snipe PT, Sommer H. Studies on botulinus toxin: 3. Acid precipitation of botulinus toxin. J Infect Dis 1928; 43: 152–160.
   Google Scholar
• Burgen AS, Dickens F, Zatman LJ. The action of botulinum toxin on the neuromuscular junction. J Physiol 1949; 109: 10–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott AB. Botulinum toxin therapy of eye muscle disorders. Safety and effectiveness. American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology 1989; Suppl: 37–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bushara KO, Park DM. Botulinum toxin and sweating. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1994; 57: 1437–1438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erbguth FJ. From poison to remedy: the chequered history of botulinum toxin. J Neural Transm 2008; 115: 559–565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freeman SR, Cohen JL. New neurotoxins on the horizon. Aesthet Surg J 2008; 28: 325–330.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Erbguth FJ. Botulinum toxin, a historical note. Lancet 1998; 351: 1820.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatheway CL. Toxigenic clostridia. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990; 3: 66–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giménez DF, Ciccarelli AS. Another type of Clostridium botulinum. Zentralbl Bakteriol Orig 1970; 215: 221–224.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharma SK, Whiting RC. Methods for detection of Clostridium botulinum toxin in foods. J Food Prot 2005; 68: 1256–1263.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St Louis ME, Peck SH, Bowering D, Morgan GB, Blatherwick J, Banerjee S, et al. Botulism from chopped garlic: delayed recognition of a major outbreak. Ann Intern Med 1988; 108: 363–368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angulo FJ, Getz J, Taylor JP, Hendricks KA, Hatheway CL, Barth SS, et al. A large outbreak of botulism: the hazardous baked potato. J Infect Dis 1998; 178: 172–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenham TN. Botulism: a rare complication of injecting drug use. Emerg Med J 2008; 25: 55–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merson MH, Dowell VR. Epidemiologic, clinical, and laboratory aspects of wound botulism. New Eng J Med 1973; 289: 1005–1010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller MA, Miller VH, Berkowitz CD, Yoshimori RN. Wound botulism in pediatrics. Am J Dis Child 1982; 136: 320–322.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burningham MD, Walter FG, Mechem C, Haber J, Ekins BR. Wound botulism. Ann Emerg Med 1994; 24: 1184–1187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas GL, Haji-Michael PG. Wound botulism in an injecting drug abuser. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29:857.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnon SS, Midura TF, Clay SA, Wood RM, Chin J. Infant botulism: epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory aspects. JAMA 1977; 237: 1946–1951.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Infant botulism-New York City, 2001–2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003; 52: 21–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Arnon SS. Infant botulism. Rudolph's Pediatrics. 20th ed. In: Rudolph AM, Hoffman JI, Rudolph CD, editors. New York: Appleton & Lange; 1996:555–558.
   Google Scholar
• Arnon SS, Midura TF, Damus K, Thompson B, Wood RM, Chin J. Honey and other environmental risk factors for infant botulism. J Pediatr 1979; 94: 331–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickett J, Berg B, Chaplin E, Brunstetter-Shafer MA. Syndrome of botulism in infancy: clinical and electrophysiologic study. N Engl J Med 1976; 295: 770–772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakheit AM, Ward CD, McLellan DL. Generalised botulism-like syndrome after intramuscular injections of botulinum toxin type A: a report of two cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 62:198.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Middlebrook JL, Franz DR. Botulinum toxins. Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological WarfareIn: Sidell FR, Takafuji ET, Franz DR, editors. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army; 1997:643–654.
   Google Scholar
• Zilinskas RA. Iraq's biological weapons: the past as future? JAMA 1997; 278: 418–424.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merson MH, Hughes JM, Dowell VR, Taylor A, Barker WH, Gangarosa EJ. Current trends in botulism in the United States. JAMA 1974; 229: 1305–1308.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai S, Singh BR, Sharma S. Botulism diagnostics: from clinical symptoms to in vitro assays. Crit Rev Microbiol 2007; 33: 109–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz BZ. Botulinum toxin. Crit Care Clin 2005; 21: 825–839, viii.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnon SS, Schechter R, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, ; Working Group on Civilian Biodefense. Botulinum toxin as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 2001; 285: 1059–1070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ting PT, Freiman A. The story of Clostridium botulinum: from food poisoning to Botox. Clin Med 2004; 4: 258–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamb A. Biological weapons: the facts not the fiction. Clin Med 2001; 1: 502–504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauschild. Clostridium botulinum. Foodborne Bacterial PathogensIn: Doyle M, editor. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1989:112–189.
   Google Scholar
• Hatheway CL. Clostridium botulinum and other clostridia that produce botulinum neurotoxin. Clostridium botulinum: Ecology and Control in FoodsIn: Hauschild AH, Dodds KL, editors. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1992:3–20.
   Google Scholar
• Hatheway CL. Clostridium botulinum. Infectious DiseasesIn: Bartlett JG, Blacklow NR, editors. Orlando: Saunders Company; 1991: 1583–1586.
   Google Scholar
• Hatheway CL. Botulism: the present status of the disease. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1995; 195: 55–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caya JG, Agni R, Miller JE. Clostridium botulinum and the clinical laboratorian: a detailed review of botulism, including biological warfare ramifications of botulinum toxin. Arch Path Lab Med 2004; 128: 653–662.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Therre H. Le botulisme en Europe. Euro Surveill 1999; 4: 2–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sobel J, Tucker N, Sulka A, McLaughlin J, Maslanka S. Food borne botulism in the United States, 1990–2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10: 1606–1611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett DH. Endemic food-borne botulism: clinical experience, 1973–1986 at Alaska Native Medical Center. Alaska Med 1991; 33: 101–108.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sobel J. Botulism. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1167–1173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolman CE, Iida H. Type E botulism: its epidemiology, prevention and specific treatment. Can J Pub Health 1963; 54: 293–308.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Infectious Disease Surveillance Center. Botulism, Japan. Infectious Agents Surveillance Report 2000; 21: 241. Available at: http://idsc. nih.go.jp/iasr/21/241/tpc241.html.
   Google Scholar
• Shih Y, Chao SY. Botulism in China. Rev Infect Dis 1986; 8: 984–990.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Quenum B, Hubert B, Sebald M. Le Botulisme en 1987 et 1988. Bull Epidemiol Hebdomadaire 1989; 27: 109–110.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Diseases Control. Botulism in the United States 1897–1973. Handbook for Epidemiologists, Clinicians and Laboratory WorkersAtlanta: CDC; 1974.
   Google Scholar
• Wainwright RB, Heyward WL, Middaugh JP, Hatheway CL, Harpster AP, Bender TR. Food-borne botulism in Alaska, 1947–1985: epidemiology and clinical findings. J Infect Dis 1988; 157: 1158–1162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLauchlin J, Grant KA, Little CL. Food-borne botulism in the United Kingdom. J Public Health (Oxf) 2006; 28: 337–342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Public Health Service. Botulism in the United States, 1899–1996. Handbook for Epidemiologists, Clinicians, and Laboratory Workers. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1998:7–8.
   Google Scholar
• Craig JM, Iida H, Inoue K. A recent case of botulism in Hokkaido, Japan. Jpn J Med Sci Biol 1970; 23: 193–198.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lecour H, Ramos MH, Almeida B, Barbosa R. Food-borne botulism. A review of 13 outbreaks. Arch Intern Med 1988; 148: 579–580.
   Google Scholar
• Hauschild A. Botulism in Canada: summary for 1984. Can Med Assoc J 1985; 132: 1402.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourtaghva M, Machoun A, Fatollah-Zadeh, Khodadoust A, Taeb H, Farzam H, Farhangui, Kodari, Daiar, Saadat. Le botulisme en Iran. Med Mal Infect 1975; 5: 536–539.
   Google Scholar
• Woodruff BA, Griffin PM, McCroskey LM, Smart JF, Wainwright RB, Bryant RG, et al. Clinical and laboratory comparison of botulism from toxin types A, B, and E in the United States, 1975–1988. J Infect Dis 1992; 166: 1281–1286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyer A, Salah A. Le botulisme en France: epidemiologie et clinique. Pyrexie 2000; 6: 177–183.
   Google Scholar
• Roblot P, Roblot F, Fauchère JL, Devilleger A, Maréchaud R, Breux JP, et al. Retrospective study of 108 cases of botulism in Poitiers, France. J Med Microbiol 1994; 40: 379–384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiorboli E, Fortina G, Bona G. Flaccid paralysis caused by botulinum toxin type B after pesto ingestion. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997; 16: 725–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts E, Wales JM, Brett MM, Bradding P. Cranial-nerve palsies and vomiting. Lancet 1998; 352: 1674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourshafie MR, Saifie M, Shafiee A, Vahdani P, Aslani M, Salemian J. An outbreak of food-borne botulism associated with contaminated locally made cheese in Iran. Scand J Infect Dis 1998; 30: 92–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villar RG, Shapiro RL, Busto S, Riva-Posse C, Verdejo G, Farace MI, et al. Outbreak of type A botulism and development of a botulism surveillance and antitoxin release system in Argentina. JAMA 1999; 281: 1334–1340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Foodborne botulism associated with home-canned bamboo shoots – Thailand, 1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999; 48:437–439.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Botulism outbreak associated with eating fermented food – Alaska, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001; 50:680–682.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Abgueguen P, Delbos V, Chennebault JM, Fanello S, Brenet O, Alquier P, et al. Nine cases of foodborne botulism type B in France and literature review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003; 22:749–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindström M, Hielm S, Nevas M, Tuisku S, Korkeala H. Proteolytic Clostridium botulinum type B in the gastric content of a patient with type E botulism due to whitefish eggs. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2004; 1:53–57.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLaughlin JB. Botulism type E outbreak associated with eating a beached whale, Alaska. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10:1685–1687.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varma JK, Katsitadze G, Moiscrafishvili M, Zardiashvili T, Chikheli M, Tarkashvili N, et al. Foodborne botulism in the Republic of Georgia. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10:1601–1605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tseng CK, Tsai CH, Tseng CH, Tseng YC, Lee FY, Huang WS. An outbreak of foodborne botulism in Taiwan. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2009; 212:82–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seals JE, Snyder JD, Edell TA, Hatheway CL, Johnson CJ, Swanson RC, Hughes JM. Restaurant-associated type A botulism: transmission by potato salad. Am J Epidemiol 1981; 113:436–444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacDonald KL, Spengler RF, Hatheway CL, Hargrett NT, Cohen ML. Type A botulism from sauteed onions. Clinical and epidemiologic observations. JAMA 1985; 253:1275–1278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Restaurant-associated botulism from mushrooms bottled in-house – Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1987; 36:103.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morse DL, Pickard LK, Guzewich JJ, Devine BD, Shayegani M. Garlic-in-oil associated botulism: episode leads to product modification. Am J Public Health 1990; 80:1372–1373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhutani M, Ralph E, Sharpe MD. Acute paralysis following “a bad potato”: a case of botulism. Can J Anaesth 2005; 52:433–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cawthorne A, Celentano LP, D'Ancona F, Bella A, Massari M, Anniballi F, et al. Botulism and preserved green olives. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11:781–782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou JH, Hwang PH, Malison MD. An outbreak of type A foodborne botulism in Taiwan due to commercially preserved peanuts. Int J Epidemiol 1988; 17:899–902.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Mahony M, Mitchell E, Gilbert RJ, Hutchinson DN, Begg NT, Rodhouse JC, Morris JE. An outbreak of foodborne botulism associated with contaminated hazelnut yoghurt. Epidemiol Infect 1990; 104:389–395.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slater PE, Addiss DG, Cohen A, Leventhal A, Chassis G, Zehavi H, et al. Foodborne botulism: an international outbreak. Int J Epidemiol 1989; 18:693–696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber JT, Hibbs RG Jr, Darwish A, Mishu B, Corwin AL, Rakha M, et al. A massive outbreak of type E botulism associated with traditional salted fish in Cairo. J Infect Dis 1993; 167:451–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Outbreak of type E botulism associated with an uneviscerated, salt-cured fish product – New Jersey, 1992. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1992; 41:521–522.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Type B botulism associated with roasted eggplant in oil – Italy, 1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1995; 44:33–36.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Troillet N, Praz G. Epidemic of type B botulism: Sion, December 1993-January 1994. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 1995; 125:1805–1812.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Townes JM, Cieslak PR, Hatheway CL, Solomon HM, Holloway JT, Baker MP, et al. An outbreak of type A botulism associated with a commercial cheese sauce. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125:558–563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aureli P, Franciosa G, Pourshaban M. Foodborne botulism in Italy. Lancet 1996; 348:1594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franciosa G, Pourshaban M, Gianfranceschi M, Gattuso A, Fenicia L, Ferrini AM, et al. Clostridium botulinum spores and toxin in mascarpone cheese and other milk products. J Food Prot 1999; 62:867–871.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aureli P, Di Cunto M, Maffei A, De Chiara G, Franciosa G, Accorinti L, et al. An outbreak in Italy of botulism associated with a dessert made with mascarpone cream cheese. Eur J Epidemiol 2000; 16:913–918.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouagari Z, Chakib A, Sodqi M, Marih L, Marhoum Filali K, Benslama A, et al. Botulism in Casablanca (11 cases). Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2002; 95:272–275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalluri P, Crowe C, Reller M, Gaul L, Hayslett J, Barth S, et al. An outbreak of foodborne botulism associated with food sold at a salvage store in Texas. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37:1490–1495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frean J, Arntzen L, van den Heever J, Perovic O. Fatal type A botulism in South Africa, 2002. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2004; 98:290–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson WH, Frei SS, Williams SR. A case of type F botulism in southern California. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42:383–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korkeala H, Stengel G, Hyytiä E, Vogelsang B, Bohl A, Wihlman H, et al. Type E botulism associated with vacuum-packaged hot-smoked whitefish. Int J Food Microbiol 1998; 43:1–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindstrom M, Vuorela M, Hinderink K, Korkeala H, Dahlsten E, Raahenmaa M, Kuusi M. Botulism associated with vacuum-packed smoked whitefish in Finland, June-July 2006. Euro Surveill 2006; 11:E060720.3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• King LA; French Multidisciplinary Outbreak Investigation Team. Two severe cases of botulism associated with industrially produced chicken enchiladas, France, August 2008. Euro Surveill 2008; 13. pii:18978.
   Google Scholar
• Sheth AN, Wiersma P, Atrubin D, Dubey V, Zink D, Skinner G, et al. International outbreak of severe botulism with prolonged toxemia caused by commercial carrot juice. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47:1245–1251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Habermann E. Clostridial neurotoxins and the central nervous system: functional studies on isolated preparations. Botulinum Neurotoxin and Tetanus Toxin. In: Simpson LL, editor. New York: Academic Press; 1989:53–67.
   Google Scholar
• Hughes JM, Blumenthal JR, Merson MH, Lombard GL, Dowell VR Jr, Gangarosa EJ. Clinical features of types A and B foodborne botulism. Ann Intern Med 1981; 95:442–445.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro RL, Hatheway C, Swerdlow DL. Botulism in the United States: a clinical and epidemiologic review. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129:221–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Domingo RM, Haller JS, Gruenthal M. Infant botulism: two recent cases and literature review. J Child Neurol 2008; 23:1336–1346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brook I. Infant botulism. J Perinatol 2007; 27:175–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fenicia L, Anniballi F. Infant botulism. Ann Ist Super Sanita 2009; 45:134–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francisco AM, Arnon SS. Clinical mimics of infant botulism. Pediatrics 2007; 119:826–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holzer E. Botulism caused by inhalation. Med Klin 1962; 57:1735–1738.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tugnoli V, Eleopra R, Qyatrale R, Capone JG, Sensi M, Gastaldo E. Botulism-like syndrome after botulinum toxin type A injections for focal hyperhidrosis. Br J Dermatol 2002; 147:808–809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beseler-Soto B, Sánchez-Palomares M, Santos-Serrano L, Landa-Rivera L, Sanantonio-Valdearcos F, Paricio-Talayero JM. Iatrogenic botulism: a complication to be taken into account in the treatment of child spasticity. Rev Neurol 2003; 37:444–446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witoonpanich R, Vichayanrat E, Tantisiriwit K, Wongtanate M, Sucharitchan N, Oranrigsupak P, et al. Survival analysis for respiratory failure in patients with food-borne botulism. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2010; 48:177–183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brook I. Botulism: the challenge of diagnosis and treatment. Rev Neurol Dis 2006; 3:182–189.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weber JT, Goodpasture HC, Alexander H, Werner SB, Hatheway CL, Tauxe RV. Wound botulism in a patient with a tooth abscess: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 16:635–639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson RF, Nahata MC. Management of botulism. Ann Pharmacother 2003; 37:127–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindström M, Korkeala H. Laboratory diagnostics of botulism. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006; 19:298–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horwitz MA, Marr JS, Merson MH, Dowell VR, Ellis JM. A continuing common-source outbreak of botulism in a family. Lancet 1975; 2:861–863.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig MG, Spickard A, Cardella MA, Rogers DE. Clinical and laboratory observations on type E Botulism in man. Medicine (Baltimore) 1964; 43:517–545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenfield RA, Brown BR, Hutchins JB, Iandolo JJ, Jackson R, Slater LN, Bronze MS. Microbiological, biological, and chemical weapons of warfare and terrorism. Am J Med Sci 2002; 323:326–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armada M, Love S, Barrett E, Monroe J, Peery D, Sobel J. Foodborne botulism in a six-month-old infant caused by home-canned baby food. Ann Emerg Med 2003; 42:226–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lund BM. Foodborne disease due to Bacillus and Clostridium species. Lancet 1990; 336:982–986.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherington M. Clinical spectrum of botulism. Muscle Nerve 1998; 21:701–710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauschild AH, Gauvreau L. Food borne botulism in Canada, 1971–84. Can Med Assoc J 1985; 133:1141–1146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelli DS, Jakabi M, Souza A. Botulism: a laboratory investigation on biological and food samples from cases and outbreaks in Brazil (1982–2001). Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2002; 44:321–324.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldfrank LR, Geyer HL. Botulinum Antitoxin. In: Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies (Ninth Edition) by Nelson LS, Lewin NA, Howland MA, Hoffman RS, Goldfrank LR, Flomenbaum NE. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2010: 695–697.
   Google Scholar
• Shapiro RL, Hatheway C, Becher J, Swerdlow DL. Botulism surveillance and emergency response: a public health strategy for a global challenge. JAMA 1997; 278:433–435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tacket CO, Shandera WX, Mann JM, Hargrett NT, Blake PA. Equine antitoxin use and other factors that predict outcome in type A food borne botulism. Am J Med 1984; 76:794–798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Investigational Heptavalent Botulinum Antitoxin (HBAT) to Replace Licensed Botulinum Antitoxin AB and Investigational Botulinum Antitoxin E. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2010; 59:299.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLaughlin J, Funk B. New Recommendations for Use of Heptavalent Botulinum antitoxin (H-BAT). State of AK Bull 2010; 5:1.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson JA, Filloux FM, Van Orman CB, Swoboda K, Peterson P, Firth SD, Bale JF Jr. Infant botulism in the age of botulism immune globulin. Neurology 2005; 64:2029–2032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long SS. Infant botulism. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20:707–709.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz BZ. Polar poisons: did botulism doom the Franklin expedition? J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2003; 41:841–847.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erlich P. Die werthbemessung des diphtheria heil-serum und deren theoretische grundlagen. Klin Jahrb Jena 1897; 6:299–326.
   Google Scholar
• Clayton MA, Clayton JM, Brown DR, Middlebrook JL. Protective vaccination with a recombinant fragment of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin serotype A expressed from a synthetic gene in Escherichia coli. Infect Immun 1995; 63:2738–2742.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett AM, Perkins SD, Holley JL. DNA vaccination protects against botulinum neurotoxin type F. Vaccine 2003; 21:3110–3117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg M, Goy P. Recherches sur la toxine botulinque. Compt Rend Soc Biol 1924; 90: 269–271.
   Google Scholar
• Ramon G. Pouvior floculant et pouvoir toxique de la toxine diphterique. Compt Rend de la Soc de Biol Paris 1923; 89: 2–4.
   Google Scholar
• Nigg C, Hottle CA, Coriell LL, Rosenwald AS, Beveridge GW. Studies on botulinum toxoid, types A and B. I. Production of alum-precipitated toxoids. J Immunol 1947; 55: 245–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiock MA, Cardella MA, Gearinger NF. Studies on immunity to toxins of Clostridium botulinum. IX. Immunologic response of man to purified ABCDE botulinum toxoid. J Immunol 1963; 90: 667–702.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis RJ. Immunobiologic agents and drugs available from the Centers for Disease Control: description, recommendations, adverse events, and serologic response. 3rd edAtlanta: Centers for Disease Control; 1982. 1.
   Google Scholar
• Byrne MP, Smith LA. Development of vaccines for prevention of botulism. Biochimie 2000; 82: 955–966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairweather NF, Lyness VA, Maskell DJ. Immunization of mice against tetanus with fragments of tetanus toxin synthesized in Escherichia coli. Infect Immun 1987; 55: 2541–2545.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith LA, Rusnak JM. Botulinum neurotoxin vaccines: past, present, and future. Crit Rev Immunol 2007; 27: 303–318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith LA, Jensen MJ, Montgomery VA, Brown DR, Ahmed SA, Smith TJ. Roads from vaccines to therapies. Mov Disord 2004; 19 (Suppl 8):S48–S52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai S, Singh BR. Strategies to design inhibitors of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxins. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2007; 7: 47–57.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Byrne MP, Smith LA. Development of vaccines for prevention of botulism. Biochimie 2000; 82: 955–966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusnak JM, Smith LA. Botulinum neurotoxin vaccines: past history and recent developments. Hum Vaccin 2009; 5: 794–805.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar