A clinicopathological approach to sulfur mustard-induced organ complications: a major review

References

• Smith KJ, Skelton HG, Hobson DW, et al. Cutaneous histopathologic features in weanling pigs after exposure to three different doses of liquid sulfur mustard. Am J Dermatopathol 1996;18:515–520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghazanfari T, Faghihzadeh S, Aragizadeh H, et al. Sardasht-Iran cohort study of chemical warfare victims: design and methods. Arch Iran Med 2009;12:5–14
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Harandi AA. Long term consequences from exposure to sulfur mustard: a review. Inhal Toxicol 2007;19:451–456
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foroutan A. Medical experiences of Iraq's chemical warfare. Tehran: Baqiatallah University of Medical Sciences; 2003:179–188
   Google Scholar
• Khateri S, Ghanei M, Keshavarz S, et al. Incidence of lung, eye, and skin lesions as late complications in 34,000 Iranians with wartime exposure to mustard agent. J Occup Environ Med 2003;45:1136–1143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghassemi-Broumand M, Aslani J, Emadi SN. Delayed ocular, pulmonary, and cutaneous complications of mustards in patients in the city of Sardasht, Iran. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2008;27:295–305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balali-Mood M, Hefazi M, Mahmoudi M, et al. Long-term complications of sulphur mustard poisoning in severely intoxicated Iranian veterans. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2005;19:713–721
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kehe K, Thiermann H, Balszuweit F, et al. Acute effects of sulfur mustard injury – Munich experiences. Toxicology 2009;263:3–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etezad-Razavi M, Mahmoudi M, Hefazi M, Balali-Mood M. Delayed ocular complications of mustard gas poisoning and the relationship with respiratory and cutaneous complications. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2006;34:342–346
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balali-Mood M, Hefazi M. Comparison of early and late toxic effects of sulfur mustard in Iranian veterans. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2006;99:273–282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DR, Taylor SL, Fetterer DP, Holmes WW. Evaluation of protease inhibitors and an antioxidant for treatment of sulfur mustard-induced toxic lung injury. Toxicology 2009;263:41–46
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dacre JC, Goldman M. Toxicology and pharmacology of the chemical warfare agent sulfur mustard. Pharmacol Rev 1996;48:289–326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Firooz A, Sadr B, Davoudi SM, et al. Long-term skin damage due to chemical weapon exposure. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2011;30:64–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Long-term ocular consequences of sulfur mustard in lung-injured war veterans. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2012;31:33–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amir A, Chapman S, Gozes Y, et al. Protection by extracellular glutathione against sulfur mustard induced toxicity in vitro. Hum Exp Toxicol 1998;17:652–660
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balali-Mood M, Hefazi M. The pharmacology, toxicology, and medical treatment of sulphur mustard poisoning. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2005;19:297–315
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munro NB, Talmage SS, Griffin GD, et al. The sources, fate, and toxicity of chemical warfare agent degradation products. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:933–974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kehe K, Balszuweit F, Steinritz D, Thiermann H. Molecular toxicology of sulfur mustard-induced cutaneous inflammation and blistering. Toxicology 2009;263:12–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shohrati M, Ghanei M, Shamspour N, et al. Glutathione and malondialdehyde levels in late pulmonary complications of sulfur mustard intoxication. Lung 2010;188:77–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jafari M, Ghanei M. Evaluation of plasma, erythrocytes, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid antioxidant defense system in sulfur mustard-injured patients. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2010;48:184–192
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukhopadhyay S, Mukherjee S, Ray BK, et al. Antioxidant liposomes protect against CEES-induced lung injury by decreasing SAF-1/MAZ-mediated inflammation in the guinea pig lung. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2010;24:187–194
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taravati A, Ardestani SK, Soroush MR, et al. Serum albumin and paraoxonase activity in Iranian veterans 20 years after sulfur mustard exposure. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2012;34:706--713
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier HL. The time-dependent effect of 2,2′-dichlorodiethyl sulfide (sulfur mustard, HD, 1,1′-thiobis [2-chloroethane]) on the lymphocyte viability and the kinetics of protection by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors. Cell Biol Toxicol 1996;12:147–153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham JS, Reid FM, Smith JR, et al. A cutaneous full-thickness liquid sulfur mustard burn model in weanling swine: clinical pathology and urinary excretion of thiodiglycol. J Appl Toxicol 2000;20:S161–S172
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van der Schans GP, Scheffer AG, Mars-Groenendijk RH, et al. Immunochemical detection of adducts of sulfur mustard to DNA of calf thymus and human white blood cells. Chem Res Toxicol 1994;7:408–413
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuter KA, Mahon SB, Mukai DS, et al. Detection and monitoring of early airway injury effects of half-mustard (2-chloroethylethylsulfide) exposure using high-resolution optical coherence tomography. J Biomed Opt 2009;14:044037
   Google Scholar
• van der Schans GP, Mars-Groenendijk R, de Jong LP, et al. Standard operating procedure for immunuslotblot assay for analysis of DNA/sulfur mustard adducts in human blood and skin. J Anal Toxicol 2004;28:316–319
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drasch G, Kretschmer E, Kauert G, von Meyer L. Concentrations of mustard gas [bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide] in the tissues of a victim of a vesicant exposure. J Forensic Sci 1987;32:1788–1793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vavra AK, Laurent CJ, Ngo V, et al. Sulfur mustard primes phagocytosis and degranulation in human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Int Immunopharmacol 2004;4:437–445
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abe Y, Sugisaki K, Dannenberg AM Jr. Rabbit vascular endothelial adhesion molecules: ELAM-1 is most elevated in acute inflammation, whereas VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 predominate in chronic inflammation. J Leukoc Biol 1996;60:692–703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shakarjian MP, Bhatt P, Gordon MK, et al. Preferential expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in mouse skin after sulfur mustard exposure. J Appl Toxicol 2006;26:239–246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka F, Dannenberg AM, Jr Higuchi K, et al. Chemotactic factors released in culture by intact developing and healing skin lesions produced in rabbits by the irritant sulfur mustard. Inflammation 1997;21:251–267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zabrodskii PF, Germanchuk VG, Mandych VG. Inhibition of function of T cell subpopulations and decrease in cytokine production during subacute poisoning with various toxicants. Bull Exp Biol Med 2008;146:234–236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keyhani A, Eslami MB, Razavimanesh H. The short-term effect of mustard gas on the serum immunoglobulin levels. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol 2007;6:15–19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahmoudi M, Hefazi M, Rastin M, Balali-Mood M. Long-term hematological and immunological complications of sulfur mustard poisoning in Iranian veterans. Int Immunopharmacol 2005;5:1479–1485
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohammadhoseiniakbari H, Ghanei M, Eajazi A, et al. Delayed effects of sulfur mustard poisoning on CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes in Iranian veterans 25 years after exposure. Med Sci Monit 2008;14:CR580–CR583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghotbi L, Hassan Z. The immunostatus of natural killer cells in people exposed to sulfur mustard. Int Immunopharmacol 2002;2:981–985
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaker Z, Hassan ZM, Sohrabpoor H, Mosaffa N. The immunostatus of T helper and T cytotoxic cells in the patients ten years after exposure to sulfur mustard. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2003;25:423–430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghazanfari T, Sharifnia Z, Yaraee R, et al. Serum soluble Fas ligand and nitric oxide in long-term pulmonary complications induced by sulfur mustard: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2009;9:1489–1493
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Evaluation of relationship between the serum levels of inflammatory mediators and ocular injuries induced by sulfur mustard: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2009;9:1494–1498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yaraee R, Ghazanfari T, Ebtekar M, et al. Alterations in serum levels of inflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-1alpha, IL-1beta and IL-1Ra) 20 years after sulfur mustard exposure: Sardasht-Iran cohort study. Int Immunopharmacol 2009;9:1466–1470
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amiri S, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Serum levels of GM-CSF 20 years after sulfur mustard exposure: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2009;9:1499–1503
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Yaraee R, Hassan ZM, et al. Association of ophthalmic complications in patients with sulfur mustard induced mild ocular complications and serum soluble adhesion molecules: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 28. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Mostafaie A, Yaraee R, et al. Association of serum immunoglobulins levels and eye injuries in sulfur mustard exposed: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 29. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.027
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yarmohammadi ME, Hassan ZM, Mostafaie A, et al. Salivary levels of secretary IgA, C5a and alpha 1-antitrypsin in sulfur mustard exposed patients 20years after the exposure: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study (SICS). Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 29. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.021
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yaraee R, Hassan ZM, Pourfarzam S, et al. Fibrinogen and inflammatory cytokines in spontaneous sputum of sulfur-mustard-exposed civilians – Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 29. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Askari N, Vaezmahdavi MR, Moaiedmohseni S, et al. Association of chemokines and prolactin with cherry angioma in a sulfur mustard exposed population – Sardasht-Iran cohort study. Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 29. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiani A, Mostafaie A, Shirazi FH, Ghazanfari T. Serum profiles of matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in long-term pulmonary complication induced by sulfur mustard: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study (SICS). Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 29. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourfarzam S, Yaraee R, Hassan ZM, et al. Chemokines, MMP-9 and PMN elastase in spontaneous sputum of sulfur mustard exposed civilians: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 28. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taravati A, Ardestani SK, Ziaee AA, et al. Effects of paraoxonase 1 activity and gene polymorphisms on long-term pulmonary complications of sulfur mustard-exposed veterans. Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 28. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moin A, Khamesipour A, Hassan ZM, et al. Pro-inflammatory cytokines among individuals with skin findings long-term after sulfur mustard exposure: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2013 Jan 28. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2012.12.022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khaheshi I, Keshavarz S, Imani Fooladi AA, et al. Loss of expression of TGF-betas and their receptors in chronic skin lesions induced by sulfur mustard as compared with chronic contact dermatitis patients. BMC Dermatol 2011;11:2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yaraee R, Ghazanfari T, Faghihzadeh S, et al. Alterations in the serum levels of soluble L, P and E-selectin 20 years after sulfur mustard exposure: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2009;9:1477–1481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kadar T, Dachir S, Cohen L, et al. Ocular injuries following sulfur mustard exposure – pathological mechanism and potential therapy. Toxicology 2009;263:59–69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNutt P, Hamilton T, Nelson M, et al. Pathogenesis of acute and delayed corneal lesions after ocular exposure to sulfur mustard vapor. Cornea 2012;31:280--290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saladi RN, Smith E, Persaud AN. Mustard: a potential agent of chemical warfare and terrorism. Clin Exp Dermatol 2006;31:1–5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borak J, Sidell FR. Agents of chemical warfare: sulfur mustard. Ann Emerg Med 1992;21:303–308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solberg Y, Alcalay M, Belkin M. Ocular injury by mustard gas. Surv Ophthalmol 1997;41:461–466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl H, Gluud B, Vangsted P, Norn M. Eye lesions induced by mustard gas. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1985;173:30–31
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mann I, Pullinger BD. A study of mustard gas lesions of the eyes of rabbits and men: (Section of Ophthalmology). Proc R Soc Med 1943;19:229–244
   Google Scholar
• Kanavi MR, Javadi A, Javadi MA. Chronic and delayed mustard gas keratopathy: a histopathologic and immunohistochemical study. Eur J Ophthalmol 2010;20:839–843
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Ghazanfari T, Soroush M, et al. Systemic and ocular complications of sulfur Mustard, A panoramic review. Toxin review 2009;28:14–23
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Javadi MA, Yazdani S, Sajjadi H, et al. Chronic and delayed-onset mustard gas keratitis: report of 48 patients and review of literature. Ophthalmology 2005;112:617–625
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Ghazanfari T, Babaei M, et al. Long-term ocular complications of sulfur mustard in the civilian victims of Sardasht, Iran. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2008;27:317–326
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baradaran-Rafii A, Javadi MA, Rezaei KM, et al. Limbal stem cell deficiency in chronic and delayed-onset mustard gas keratopathy. Ophthalmology 2010;117:246–252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baradaran-Rafii A, Eslani M, Tseng SC. Sulfur mustard-induced ocular surface disorders. Ocul Surf 2011;9:163–178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Ghazanfari T, Ghassemi-Broumand M, et al. Long-term ocular consequences of sulfur mustard in seriously eye-injured war veterans. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2009;28:71–77
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghasemi H, Owlia P, Ghazanfari T, et al. Conjunctival microbial florae in patients with seriously sulfur mustard induced eye injuries. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2013;32:13--17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jafarinasab MR, Zarei-Ghanavati S, Kanavi MR, et al. Confocal microscopy in chronic and delayed mustard gas keratopathy. Cornea 2010;29:889–894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emmler J, Hermanns MI, Steinritz D, et al. Assessment of alterations in barrier functionality and induction of proinflammatory and cytotoxic effects after sulfur mustard exposure of an in vitro coculture model of the human alveolo-capillary barrier. Inhal Toxicol 2007;19:657–665
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairhall SJ, Jugg BJ, Read RW, et al. Exposure-response effects of inhaled sulfur mustard in a large porcine model: a 6-h study. Inhal Toxicol 2010;22:1135–1143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray R, Keyser B, Benton B, et al. Sulfur mustard induces apoptosis in cultured normal human airway epithelial cells: evidence of a dominant caspase-8-mediated pathway and differential cellular responses. Drug Chem Toxicol 2008;31:137–148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allon N, Amir A, Manisterski E, et al. Inhalation exposure to sulfur mustard in the guinea pig model: clinical, biochemical and histopathological characterization of respiratory injuries. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009;241:154–162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malaviya R, Sunil VR, Cervelli J, et al. Inflammatory effects of inhaled sulfur mustard in rat lung. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2010;248:89–99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunil VR, Patel-Vayas K, Shen J, et al. Role of TNFR1 in lung injury and altered lung function induced by the model sulfur mustard vesicant, 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011;250:245–255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabir SM, Mukherjee S, Rajaratnam V, et al. Desensitization of beta-adrenergic receptors in lung injury induced by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide, a mustard analog. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2009;23:59–70
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha RS, Mukherjee S, Kabir S, et al. Inhibition of cholinephosphotransferase activity in lung injury induced by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide, a mustard analog. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2005;19:289–297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger B, Laskin JD, Sunil VR, et al. Sulfur mustard-induced pulmonary injury: therapeutic approaches to mitigating toxicity. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2011;24:92–99
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foroutan S. Medical notes on chemical warfare, part II [in Persian]. Kowsar Med Journal 1997;1:159–177
   Google Scholar
• Kehe K, Szinicz L. Medical aspects of sulphur mustard poisoning. Toxicology 2005;214:198–209
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kehe K, Balszuweit F, Emmler J, et al. Sulfur mustard research – strategies for the development of improved medical therapy. Eplasty 2008;8:e32
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sohrabpour H. Clinical manifestations of chemical agents on Iranian combatants during Iran--Iraq conflict. Arch Belg 1984;Suppl:291–297
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ghanei M, Harandi AA. Molecular and cellular mechanism of lung injuries due to exposure to sulfur mustard: a review. Inhal Toxicol 2011;23:363–371
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pauwels RA, Buist AS, Calverley PM, et al. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. NHLBI/WHO Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) Workshop summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:1256–1276
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pourfarzam S, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Serum levels of IL-8 and IL-6 in the long term pulmonary complications induced by sulfur mustard: Sardasht-Iran Cohort Study. Int Immunopharmacol 2009;9:1482–1488
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emad A, Rezaian GR. The diversity of the effects of sulfur mustard gas inhalation on respiratory system 10 years after a single, heavy exposure: analysis of 197 cases. Chest 1997;112:734–738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Akhlaghpoor S, Moahammad MM, Aslani J. Tracheobronchial stenosis following sulfur mustard inhalation. Inhal Toxicol 2004;16:845–849
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirsadraee M, Attaran D, Boskabady MH, Towhidi M. Airway hyperresponsiveness to methacholine in chemical warfare victims. Respiration 2005;72:523–528
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Assadsangabi A, Emad A. Evaluation of bronchial hypersensitivity in veterans with sulfur mustard gas-induced skin or eye manifestations without respiratory symptoms: 15 years after exposure. Arch Environ Occup Health 2006;61:159–162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowell M, Kehe K, Balszuweit F, Thiermann H. The chronic effects of sulfur mustard exposure. Toxicology 2009;263:9–11
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Namazi S, Niknahad H, Razmkhah H. Long-term complications of sulphur mustard poisoning in intoxicated Iranian veterans. J Med Toxicol 2009;5:191–195
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zarchi K, Akbar A, Naieni KH. Long-term pulmonary complications in combatants exposed to mustard gas: a historical cohort study. Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:579–581
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pourfarzam Sh, Ghazanfari T, Merasizadeh J, et al. Long-term pulmonary complications in sulfur mustard victims of Sardasht, Iran. Toxin Rev 2009;28:8–13
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Adibi I, Farhat F, Aslani J. Late respiratory effects of sulfur mustard: how is the early symptoms severity involved? Chron Respir Dis 2008;5:95–100
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hefazi M, Attaran D, Mahmoudi M, Balali-Mood M. Late respiratory complications of mustard gas poisoning in Iranian veterans. Inhal Toxicol 2005;17:587–592
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Naderi M, Kosar AM, et al. Long-term pulmonary complications of chemical warfare agent exposure in Iraqi Kurdish civilians. Inhal Toxicol 2010;22:719–724
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bijani K, Moghadamnia AA. Long-term effects of chemical weapons on respiratory tract in Iraq-Iran war victims living in Babol (North of Iran). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2002;53:422–424
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Ghayumi M, Ahakzani N, et al. Noninvasive diagnosis of bronchiolitis obliterans due to sulfur mustard exposure: could high-resolution computed tomography give us a clue? Radiol Med 2010;115:413–420
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakhtavar K, Sedighi N, Moradi Z. Inspiratory and expiratory high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) in patients with chemical warfare agents exposure. Inhal Toxicol 2008;20:507–511
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Mokhtari M, Mohammad MM, Aslani J. Bronchiolitis obliterans following exposure to sulfur mustard: chest high resolution computed tomography. Eur J Radiol 2004;52:164–169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Tazelaar HD, Chilosi M, et al. An international collaborative pathologic study of surgical lung biopsies from mustard gas-exposed patients. Respir Med 2008;102:825–830
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Moqadam FA, Mohammad MM, Aslani J. Tracheobronchomalacia and air trapping after mustard gas exposure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 20061;173:304–309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attaran D, Lari SM, Khajehdaluee M, et al. Highly sensitive C-reactive protein levels in Iranian patients with pulmonary complication of sulfur mustard poisoning and its correlation with severity of airway diseases. Hum Exp Toxicol 2009;28:739–745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseini-Khalili AR, Thompson J, Kehoe A, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype and late respiratory complications of mustard gas exposure. BMC Pulm Med 2008;8:15
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Attaran D, Lari SM, Towhidi M, et al. Interleukin-6 and airflow limitation in chemical warfare patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2010;5:335–340
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mehrani H, Ghanei M, Aslani J, Golmanesh L. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid proteomic patterns of sulfur mustard-exposed patients. Proteomics Clin Appl 2009;3:1191–1200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emad A, Emad Y. Increased granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) levels in BAL fluid from patients with sulfur mustard gas-induced pulmonary fibrosis. J Aerosol Med 2007;20:352–360
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Emad A, Emad V. Elevated levels of MCP-1, MIP-alpha and MIP-1 beta in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of patients with mustard gas-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Toxicology 2007;240:60–69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emad A, Emad Y. Levels of cytokine in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid in patients with pulmonary fibrosis due to sulfur mustard gas inhalation. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2007;27:38–43
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emad A, Emad Y. Relationship between eosinophilia and levels of chemokines (CCL5 and CCL11) and IL-5 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with mustard gas-induced pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Immunol 2007;27:605–612
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emad A, Emad Y. CD4/CD8 ratio and cytokine levels of the BAL fluid in patients with bronchiectasis caused by sulfur mustard gas inhalation. J Inflamm (Lond) 2007;4:2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Emad A, Emad Y. Increased in CD8 T lymphocytes in the BAL fluid of patients with sulfur mustard gas-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Respir Med 2007;101:786–792
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zarin AA, Behmanesh M, Tavallaei M, et al. Overexpression of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 and TGF-beta3 genes in lung of toxic-inhaled patients. Exp Lung Res 2010;36:284–291
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson JM, Seagrave J, Weber WM, et al. Time course of lesion development in the hairless guinea-pig model of sulfur mustard-induced dermal injury. Wound Repair Regen 2011;19:348–357
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatterjee D, Mukherjee S, Smith MG, Das SK. Evidence of hair loss after subacute exposure to 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide, a mustard analog, and beneficial effects of N-acetyl cysteine. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2004;18:150–153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsay CD, Rice P. Assessment of the biochemical effects of percutaneous exposure of sulphur mustard in an in vitro human skin system. Hum Exp Toxicol 1996;15:237–244
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brimfield AA, Zweig LM, Novak MJ, Maxwell DM. In vitro oxidation of the hydrolysis product of sulfur mustard, 2,2′-thiobis-ethanol, by mammalian alcohol dehydrogenase. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 1998;12:361–369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snider TH, Matthews MC, Braue EH Jr. Model for assessing efficacy of topical skin protectants against sulfur mustard vapor using hairless guinea pigs. J Appl Toxicol 1999;19:S55–S58
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dachir S, Cohen M, Fishbeine E, et al. Characterization of acute and long-term sulfur mustard-induced skin injuries in hairless guinea-pigs using non-invasive methods. Skin Res Technol 2010;16:114–124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillman JF, III McGary KL, Schlager JJ. Sulfur mustard induces the formation of keratin aggregates in human epidermal keratinocytes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2003;193:228–236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinshaw DB, Lodhi IJ, Hurley LL, et al. Activation of poly [ADP-Ribose] polymerase in endothelial cells and keratinocytes: role in an in vitro model of sulfur mustard-mediated vesication. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1999;156:17–29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteiro-Riviere NA, Inman AO. Indirect immunohistochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy distribution of eight epidermal-dermal junction epitopes in the pig and in isolated perfused skin treated with bis (2-chloroethyl) sulfide. Toxicol Pathol 1995;23:313–325
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabourin CL, Danne MM, Buxton KL, et al. Cytokine, chemokine, and matrix metalloproteinase response after sulfur mustard injury to weanling pig skin. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2002;16:263–272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaha M, Bowers W Jr., Kohl J, et al. Effects of CEES on inflammatory mediators, heat shock protein 70A, histology and ultrastructure in two skin models. J Appl Toxicol 2000;20:S101–S108
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith KJ, Graham JS, Hamilton TA, Skelton HG, Petrali JP, Hurst CG. Immunohistochemical studies of basement membrane proteins and proliferation and apoptosis markers in sulfur mustard induced cutaneous lesions in weanling pigs. J Dermatol Sci 1997;15:173–182
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tewari-Singh N, Rana S, Gu M, et al. Inflammatory biomarkers of sulfur mustard analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-induced skin injury in SKH-1 hairless mice. Toxicol Sci 2009;108:194–206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Z, Peters BP, Monteiro-Riviere NA. Assessment of sulfur mustard interaction with basement membrane components. Cell Biol Toxicol 1995;11:89–101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsuruta J, Sugisaki K, Dannenberg AM Jr, et al. The cytokines NAP-1 (IL-8), MCP-1, IL-1 beta, and GRO in rabbit inflammatory skin lesions produced by the chemical irritant sulfur mustard. Inflammation 1996;20:293–318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Poursaleh Z, Harandi AA, et al. Acute and chronic effects of sulfur mustard on the skin: a comprehensive review. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2010;29:269–277
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davoudi SM, Keshavarz S, Sadr B, et al. Skin hydration and transepidermal water loss in patients with a history of sulfur mustard contact: a case-control study. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2009;23:940–944
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moin A, Ghazanfari T, Davoudi SM, et al. Long-term skin findings of sulfur mustard exposure on the civilians of Sardasht, Iran. Toxin Rev 2009;28:24–29
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emadi SN, Mortazavi M, Mortazavi H. Late cutaneous manifestations 14 to 20 years after wartime exposure to sulfur mustard gas: a long-term investigation. Arch Dermatol 2008;144:1059–1061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emadi SN, Hosseini-Khalili A, Soroush MR, et al. Mustard gas scarring with specific pigmentary, trophic and vascular charactristics (case report, 16-year post-exposure). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2008;69:574–576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emadi SN, Babamahmoodi F, Poursaleh Z, et al. Sezary syndrome, Kaposi sarcoma and generalized dermatophytosis 15 years after sulfur mustard gas exposure. J Dermatol Case Rep 2012;6:86–89
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Emadi SN, Kaffashi M, Poursaleh Z, et al. Sulfur mustard-induced poikiloderma: a case report. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2011;30:170–174
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emadi SN, Aslani J, Poursaleh Z, et al. Comparison late cutaneous complications between exposure to sulfur mustard and nerve agents. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2012;31:214–219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bullman T, Kang H. A fifty year mortality follow-up study of veterans exposed to low level chemical warfare agent, mustard gGas. Ann Epidemiol 2000;10:333–338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davoudi SM, Sadr B, Hayatbakhsh MR, et al. Comparative study of skin sebum and elasticity level in patients with sulfur mustard-induced dermatitis and healthy controls. Skin Res Technol 2010;16:237–242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hefazi M, Maleki M, Mahmoudi M, et al. Delayed complications of sulfur mustard poisoning in the skin and the immune system of Iranian veterans 16–20 years after exposure. Int J Dermatol 2006;45:1025–1031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anand T, Vijayaraghavan R, Rao PV, et al. Attenuation of sulfur mustard toxicity by S-2(2-aminoethylamino)ethyl phenyl sulfide (DRDE-07) in mouse liver. Toxicol Mech Methods 2011;21:596--605
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauhan RS, Murty LV. Effect of topically applied sulphur mustard on guinea pig liver. J Appl Toxicol 1997;17:415–419
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakshmana Rao PV, Vijayaraghavan R, Bhaskar AS. Sulphur mustard induced DNA damage in mice after dermal and inhalation exposure. Toxicology 1999;139:39–51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma M, Pant SC, Pant JC, Vijayaraghavan R. Nitrogen and sulphur mustard induced histopathological observations in mouse visceral organs. J Environ Biol 2010;31:891–905
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Khedmat H, Mardi F, Hosseini A. Distal esophagitis in patients with mustard-gas induced chronic cough. Dis Esophagus 2006;19:285–288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allon N, Chapman S, Shalem Y, et al. Lipopolysaccharide induced protection against sulfur mustard cytotoxicity in RAW264.7 cells through generation of TNF-alpha. J Toxicol Sci 2010;35:345–355
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coutelier JP, Lison D, Simon O, Willems J. Effect of sulfur mustard on murine lymphocytes. Toxicol Lett 1991;58:143–148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold MB, Scharf BA. Hematological profile of the euthymic hairless guinea pig following sulfur mustard vesicant exposure. J Appl Toxicol 1995;15:433–438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra NC, Rir-sima-ah J, March T, et al. Sulfur mustard induces immune sensitization in hairless guinea pigs. Int Immunopharmacol 2010;10:193–199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkateswaran KS, Neeraja V, Sugendran K, et al. Dose dependent effects on lymphoid organs following a single dermal application of sulphur mustard in mice. Hum Exp Toxicol 1994;13:247–251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobb AJ, Arfsten DP, Jederberg WW. N-acetyl-L-Cysteine as prophylaxis against sulfur mustard. Mil Med 2005;170:52–56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krumbhaar EB, Krumbhaar HD. The blood and bone marrow in yelloe cross gas (mustard gas) poisoning: changes produced in the bone marrow of fatal cases. J Med Res 1919;40:497–508
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Needham DM, Cohen JA, Barrett AM. The mechanism of damage to the bone marrow in systemic poisoning with mustard gas. Biochem J 1947;41:631–639
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uerbach C, Robson JM. Action of mustard gas on the bone marrow. Nature 1946;158:878
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawley PD, Phillips DH. DNA adducts from chemotherapeutic agents. Mutat Res 1996;355:13–40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M. Delayed haematological complications of mustard gas. J Appl Toxicol 2004;24:493–495
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shams J, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Long-term hematological consequences of sulfur mustard on civilians of Sardasht 20 years after exposure. Toxin Rev 2009;28:39–43
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dabrowska MI, Becks LL, Lelli JL, Jr et al. Sulfur mustard induces apoptosis and necrosis in endothelial cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1996;141:568–583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim MT, Park WJ, Kim S, et al. Involvement of calmodulin kinase II in the action of sulphur mustard on the contraction of vascular smooth muscle. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2011;108:28–33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fallahi F, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Long-term cardiovascular symptoms and signs in mustard gas victims. Toxin Rev 2009;28:30–33
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gholamrezanezhad A, Saghari M, Vakili A, et al. Myocardial perfusion abnormalities in chemical warfare patients intoxicated with mustard gas. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2007;23:197–205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijayaraghavan R, Kulkarni A, Pant SC, et al. Differential toxicity of sulfur mustard administered through percutaneous, subcutaneous, and oral routes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2005;202:180–188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijayaraghavan R, Sugendran K, Pant SC, et al. Dermal intoxication of mice with bis(2-chloroethyl)sulphide and the protective effect of flavonoids. Toxicology 1991;69:35–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijayaraghavan R, Gautam A, Sharma M, et al. Comparative evaluation of some flavonoids and tocopherol acetate against the systemic toxicity induced by sulphur mustard. Indian J Pharmacol 2008;40:114–120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugendran K, Jeevaratnam K, Husain K, et al. Effects of topically applied sulphur mustard on tissue glycogen, blood glucose, lactate and pyruvate in mice. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1992;36:219–221
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jalali Nadoushan MR, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Total serum bilirubinemia and intensity of sulfur mustard exposure in Iranian chemical victims 20 years after exposure. Toxin Rev 2009;28:44–47
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer-Wilson MJ, Nguyen V, Jung WG, et al. Detection of vesicant-induced upper airway mucosa damage in the hamster cheek pouch model using optical coherence tomography. J Biomed Opt 2010;15:016017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber WM, Kracko DA, Lehman MR, et al. Inhalation exposure systems for the development of rodent models of sulfur mustard-induced pulmonary injury. Toxicol Mech Methods 2010;20:14–24
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhavan A, Ajalloueyan M, Ghanei M, Moharamzad Y. Late laryngeal findings in sulfur mustard poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2009;47:142–144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zojaji R, Balali-Mood M, Mirzadeh M, et al. Delayed head and neck complications of sulphur mustard poisoning in Iranian veterans. J Laryngol Otol 2009;123:1150–1154
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chusid JG, Marquardt GH. Onset of Guillain-Barre syndrome following exposure to mustard gas. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1946;55:57
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wormser U, Izrael M, Van der Zee EA, et al. A chick model for the mechanisms of mustard gas neurobehavioral teratogenicity. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005;27:65–71
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen AB, Eriksen J, Smidt-Nielsen K. Chronic neuropathic symptoms after exposure to mustard gas: a long-term investigation. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;39:187–190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma DR, Sunkaria A, Bal A, et al. Neurobehavioral impairments, generation of oxidative stress and release of pro-apoptotic factors after chronic exposure to sulphur mustard in mouse brain. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009;240:208–218
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr PP, Ford JD, Friedman MJ, et al. Predictors and outcomes of posttraumatic stress disorder in World War II veterans exposed to mustard gas. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000;68:258–268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Attaran D, Khajedaloui M, Jafarzadeh R, Mazloomi M. Health-related quality of life in patients with chemical warfare-induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Iran Med 2006;9:359–363
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mousavi B, Soroush MR, Montazeri A. Quality of life in chemical warfare survivors with ophthalmologic injuries: the first results from Iran Chemical Warfare Victims Health Assessment Study. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2009;7:2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panahi Y, Davoudi SM, Sadr SB, et al. Impact of pruritus on quality of life in sulfur mustard-exposed Iranian veterans. Int J Dermatol 2008;47:557–561
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghazanfari Z, Ghazanfari T, Kermani-Jalilvand A, et al. Association of physical activity and IL-10 levels 20 years after sulfur mustard exposure: Sardasht-Iran cohort study. Int Immunopharmacol 2009;9:1504–1508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghazanfari Z, Ghazanfari T, Araghizadeh H, et al. Physical activity of the civilian chemical victims of Sardasht 20 years after sulfur mustard exposure. Toxin Rev 2009;28:48–53
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirasteh A, Ghazanfari T, Hassan ZM, et al. Stages of change for physical activity in sulfur mustard victims 20 years after exposure. Toxin Rev 2009;28:54–59
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghaedi G, Ghasemi H, Mousavi B, et al. Impact of psychological problems in chemical warfare survivors with severe ophthalmologic complication, a cross sectional study. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2012;10:36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sasser LB, Cushing JA, Dacre JC. Dominant lethal study of sulfur mustard in male and female rats. J Appl Toxicol 1993;13:359–368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Safarinejad MR. Testicular effect of mustard gas. Urology 2001;58:90–94
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amirzargar MA, Yavangi M, Rahnavardi M, et al. Chronic mustard toxicity on the testis: a historical cohort study two decades after exposure. Int J Androl 2009;32:411–416
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• bu-Musa AA, Kobeissi L, Hannoun AB, Inhorn MC. Effect of war on fertility: a review of the literature. Reprod Biomed Online 2008;17:43–53
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Momeni AZ, Aminjavaheri M. Skin manifestations of mustard gas in a group of 14 children and teenagers: a clinical study. Int J Dermatol 1994;33:184–187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soroush MR, Ghanei M, Assari S, Khoddami Vishteh HR. Urogenital history in veterans exposed to high-dose sulfur mustard: a preliminary study of self-reported data. Urol J 2009;6:114–119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shariat-Panahi Sh, Ghazanfari T, Yaraee R, et al. Long-term rheumatologic complications of sulfur mustard in victims of Sardasht, Iran. Toxin Rev 2009;28:34–38
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anand T, Vijayaraghavan R, Bansal I, Bhattacharya BK. Role of inflammatory cytokines and DNA damage repair proteins in sulfur mustard exposed mice liver. Toxicol Mech Methods 2009;19:356–362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Debiak M, Panas A, Steinritz D, et al. High-throughput analysis of DNA interstrand crosslinks in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by automated reverse FADU assay. Toxicology 2011;280:53–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottschall EB. Occupational and environmental thoracic malignancies. J Thorac Imaging 2002;17:189–197
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aasted A, Darre E, Wulf HC. Mustard gas: clinical, toxicological, and mutagenic aspects based on modern experience. Ann Plast Surg 1987;19:330–333
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Harandi AA. Lung carcinogenicity of sulfur mustard. Clin Lung Cancer 2010;11:13–17
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseini-Khalili A, Haines DD, Modirian E, et al. Mustard gas exposure and carcinogenesis of lung. Mutat Res 2009;678:1–6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning KP, Skegg DC, Stell PM, Doll R. Cancer of the larynx and other occupational hazards of mustard gas workers. Clin Otolaryngol Allied Sci 1981;6:165–170
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shakil FA, Kuramoto A, Yamakido M, et al. Cytogenetic abnormalities of hematopoietic tissue in retired workers of the Ohkunojima poison gas factory. Hiroshima J Med Sci 1993;42:159–165
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yanagida J, Hozawa S, Ishioka S, et al. Somatic mutation in peripheral lymphocytes of former workers at the Okunojima poison gas factory. Jpn J Cancer Res 1988;79:1276–1283
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Easton DF, Peto J, Doll R. Cancers of the respiratory tract in mustard gas workers. Br J Ind Med 1988;45:652–659
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Doi M, Hattori N, Yokoyama A, et al. Effect of mustard gas exposure on incidence of lung cancer: a longitudinal study. Am J Epidemiol 2011;173:659–666
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu J, Mao Y, White K. Renal cell carcinoma and occupational exposure to chemicals in Canada. Occup Med (Lond) 2002;52:157–164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyriboz Y. A recent exposure to mustard gas in the United States: clinical findings of a cohort (n = 247) 6 years after exposure. MedGenMed 2004;6:4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iravani S, Rahnavardi M, Gorouhi F, Gorouhi F. Repeated gastrointestinal malignancies in a victim of sulfur mustard gas attack. Indian J Gastroenterol 2007;26:102
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hirono M, Suehiro S, Hirai T, et al. Early gastric cancer with widespread lymph node metastases; a case report. Jpn J Surg 1984;14:143–145
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Emadi SN, Moeineddin F, Sorush MR. Urinary and cutaneous complications of sulphur mustard poisoning preceding pulmonary and ocular involvement: an unusual sequence of symptoms. Clin Exp Dermatol 2009;34:e7–e10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gould NS, White CW, Day BJ. A role for mitochondrial oxidative stress in sulfur mustard analog 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide-induced lung cell injury and antioxidant protection. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2009;328:732–739
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar O, Sugendran K, Vijayaraghavan R. Protective effect of various antioxidants on the toxicity of sulphur mustard administered to mice by inhalation or percutaneous routes. Chem Biol Interact 2001;134:1–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beheshti J, Mark EJ, Akbaei HM, et al. Mustard lung secrets: long term clinicopathological study following mustard gas exposure. Pathol Res Pract 2006;202:739–744
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson DR, Byers SL, Vesely KR. Treatment of sulfur mustard (HD)-induced lung injury. J Appl Toxicol 2000;20:S129–S132
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoesel LM, Flierl MA, Niederbichler AD, et al. Ability of antioxidant liposomes to prevent acute and progressive pulmonary injury. Antioxid Redox Signal 2008;10:973–981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qui M, Paromov VM, Yang H, et al. Inhibition of inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase by a mustard gas analog in murine macrophages. BMC Cell Biol 2006;7:39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paromov V, Qui M, Yang H, et al. The influence of N-acetyl-L-cysteine on oxidative stress and nitric oxide synthesis in stimulated macrophages treated with a mustard gas analogue. BMC Cell Biol 2008;9:33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukherjee S, Stone WL, Yang H, et al. Protection of half sulfur mustard gas-induced lung injury in guinea pigs by antioxidant liposomes. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2009;23:143–153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazumder PK, Sugendran K, Vijayaraghavan R. Protective efficacy of calcium channel blockers in sulphur mustard poisoning. Biomed Environ Sci 1998;11:363–369
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tewari-Singh N, Agarwal C, Huang J, et al. Efficacy of glutathione in ameliorating sulfur mustard analog-induced toxicity in cultured skin epidermal cells and in SKH-1 mouse skin in vivo. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011;336:450–459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ebtekar M, Hassan ZM. Effect of immunomodulators pyrimethamine and cimetidine on immunosuppression induced by sulfur mustard in mice. Int J Immunopharmacol 1993;15:533–541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao X, Ray R, Xiao Y, et al. Macrolide antibiotics improve chemotactic and phagocytic capacity as well as reduce inflammation in sulfur mustard-exposed monocytes. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2010;23:97–106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Helden HP, Kuijpers WC, Diemel RV. Asthmalike symptoms following intratracheal exposure of Guinea pigs to sulfur mustard aerosol: therapeutic efficacy of exogenous lung surfactant curosurf and salbutamol. Inhal Toxicol 2004;16:537–548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wigenstam E, Rocksen D, Ekstrand-Hammarstrom B, Bucht A. Treatment with dexamethasone or liposome-encapsuled vitamin E provides beneficial effects after chemical-induced lung injury. Inhal Toxicol 2009;21:958–964
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold MB, Bongiovanni R, Scharf BA, et al. Hypochlorite solution as a decontaminant in sulfur mustard contaminated skin defects in the euthymic hairless guinea pig. Drug Chem Toxicol 1994;17:499–527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mi L, Gong W, Nelson P, et al. Hypothermia reduces sulphur mustard toxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2003;193:73–83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodsky B, Wormser U. Protection from toxicants. Curr Probl Dermatol 2007;34:76–86
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wormser U, Sintov A, Brodsky B, et al. Protective effect of topical iodine containing anti-inflammatory drugs against sulfur mustard-induced skin lesions. Arch Toxicol 2004;78:156–166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wormser U, Brodsky B, Proscura E, et al. Involvement of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in sulfur mustard-induced skin lesion: effect of topical iodine. Arch Toxicol 2005;79:660–670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wormser U, Langenbach R, Peddada S, et al. Reduced sulfur mustard-induced skin toxicity in cyclooxygenase-2 knockout and celecoxib-treated mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2004;200:40–47
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gray JP, Mishin V, Heck DE, et al. Inhibition of NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase by the model sulfur mustard vesicant 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide is associated with increased production of reactive oxygen species. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2010;247:76–82
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arroyo CM, Kan RK, Burman DL, et al. Regulation of 1-alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 induced by sulfur mustard (HD) on human skin cells. Pharmacol Toxicol 2003;92:204–213
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grando SA. Mucocutaneous cholinergic system is targeted in mustard-induced vesication. Life Sci 2003;72:2135–2144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham JS, Stevenson RS, Mitcheltree LW, et al. Medical management of cutaneous sulfur mustard injuries. Toxicology 2009;263:47–58
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meisenberg BR, Melaragno AJ, Monroy RL. Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) for mustard-induced bone marrow suppression. Mil Med 1993;158:470–474
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munro NB, Watson AP, Ambrose KR, Griffin GD. Treating exposure to chemical warfare agents: implications for health care providers and community emergency planning. Environ Health Perspect 1990;89:205–215
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callaway S, Pearce KA. Protection against systemic poisoning by mustard gas, di(2-chloroethyl) sulphide, by sodium thiosulphate and thiocit in the albino rat. Br J Pharmacol Chemother 1958;13:395–398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naghii MR. Sulfur mustard intoxication, oxidative stress, and antioxidants. Mil Med 2002;167:573–575
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banin E, Morad Y, Berenshtein E, et al. Injury induced by chemical warfare agents: characterization and treatment of ocular tissues exposed to nitrogen mustard. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003;44:2966–2972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arora R, Mehta D, Jain V. Amniotic membrane transplantation in acute chemical burns. Eye (Lond) 2005;19:273–278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Javadi MA, Baradaran-Rafii A. Living-related conjunctival-limbal allograft for chronic or delayed-onset mustard gas keratopathy. Cornea 2009;28:51–57
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Khalili AR, Arab MJ, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic value of short-term corticosteroid therapy in exacerbation of mustard gas-induced chronic bronchitis. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2005;97:302–305
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aghanouri R, Ghanei M, Aslani J, et al. Fibrogenic cytokine levels in bronchoalveolar lavage aspirates 15 years after exposure to sulfur mustard. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2004;287:L1160–L1164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Panahi Y, Mojtahedzadeh M, et al. Effect of gamma interferon on lung function of mustard gas exposed patients, after 15 years. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2006;19:148–153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanei M, Shohrati M, Harandi AA, et al. Inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting beta 2-agonists in treatment of patients with chronic bronchiolitis following exposure to sulfur mustard. Inhal Toxicol 2007;19:889–894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boskabady MH, Attaran D, Shaffei MN. Airway responses to salbutamol after exposure to chemical warfare. Respirology 2008;13:288–293
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shohrati M, Aslani J, Eshraghi M, et al. Therapeutics effect of N-acetyl cysteine on mustard gas exposed patients: evaluating clinical aspect in patients with impaired pulmonary function test. Respir Med 2008;102:443–448
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray VS, Volans GN. Management of injuries due to chemical weapons. BMJ 1991;302:129–130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith KJ. The prevention and treatment of cutaneous injury secondary to chemical warfare agents. Application of these finding to other dermatologic conditions and wound healing. Dermatol Clin 1999;17:41–60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panahi Y, Moharamzad Y, Beiraghdar F, Naghizadeh MM. Comparison of clinical efficacy of topical pimecrolimus with betamethasone in chronic skin lesions due to sulfur mustard exposure: a randomized, investigator-blind study. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2009;104:171–175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panahi Y, Davoodi SM, Khalili H, et al. Phenol and menthol in the treatment of chronic skin lesions following mustard gas exposure. Singapore Med J 2007;48:392–395
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shohrati M, Davoudi SM, Keshavarz S, et al. Cetirizine, doxepine, and hydroxyzine in the treatment of pruritus due to sulfur mustard: a randomized clinical trial. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2007;26:249–255
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jowsey PA, Williams FM, Blain PG. DNA damage responses in cells exposed to sulphur mustard. Toxicol Lett 2012;209:1–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korkmaz A, Kunak ZI, Paredes SD, et al. The use of melatonin to combat mustard toxicity. REVIEW. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 2008;29:614–619
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isidore MA, Castagna MP, Steele KE, et al. A dorsal model for cutaneous vesicant injury by 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide using C57BL/6 mice. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2007;26:265–276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laskin JD, Black AT, Jan YH, et al. Oxidants and antioxidants in sulfur mustard-induced injury. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010;1203:92–100
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier HL, Johnson JB. The determination and prevention of cytotoxic effects induced in human lymphocytes by the alkylating agent 2,2′-dichlorodiethyl sulfide (sulfur mustard, HD). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1992;113:234–239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClintock SD, Hoesel LM, Das SK, et al. Attenuation of half sulfur mustard gas-induced acute lung injury in rats. J Appl Toxicol 2006;26:126–131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poursaleh Z, Ghanei M, Babamahmoodi F, et al. Pathogenesis and treatment of skin lesions caused by sulfur mustard. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2012;31:241–249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahebkar A. Baicalin as a potentially promising drug for the management of sulfur mustard induced cutaneous complications: a review of molecular mechanisms. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2012;31:226–234
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pohanka M. Antioxidants countermeasures against sulfur mustard. Mini Rev Med Chem 2012;12:742–748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghabili K, Agutter PS, Ghanei M, et al. Mustard gas toxicity: the acute and chronic pathological effects. J Appl Toxicol 2010;30:627–643
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghabili K, Agutter PS, Ghanei M, et al. Sulfur mustard toxicity: history, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. Crit Rev Toxicol 2011;41:384–403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar