808
Views
29
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
REVIEW ARTICLE

Is neurogenesis relevant in depression and in the mechanism of antidepressant drug action? A critical review

, &
Pages 402-412 | Received 01 Feb 2011, Accepted 04 Oct 2011, Published online: 19 Dec 2011

References

  • Altman J, Das GD. 1965. Post-natal origin of microneurones in the rat brain. Nature 207:953–956.
  • Amico F, Meisenzahl E, Koutsouleris N, Reiser M, Möller HJ, Frodl T. 2011. Structural MRI correlates for vulnerability and resilience to major depressive disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 36:15 22.
  • Anacker C, Zunszain PA, Carvalho LA, Pariante CM. 2011a. The glucocorticoid receptor: pivot of depression and of antidepressant treatment? Psychoneuroendocrinol 36:415 425.
  • Anacker C, Zunszain PA, Cattaneo A, Carvalho LA, Garabedian MJ, Thuret S, . 2011b. Antidepressants increase human hippocampal neurogenesis by activating the glucocorticoid receptor. Mol Psychiat 16:738 750.
  • Angevaren M, Aufdemkampe G, Vergaar HJ, Aleman A, Vanhees L. 2008. Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD005381.
  • Anisman H, Ravindram AV, Griffiths J, Merali Z. 1999. IL-1 beta production in dysthymia after pharmacotherapy. Biol Psychiatry 46:1649–1655.
  • Balu DT. 2010. Enhanced sensitivity of the MRL/MpJ mouse to the neuroplastic and behavioral effects of acute and chronic antidepressant treatments. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 18:71–77.
  • Barsegyan A, Mackenzie SM, Kurose BD, McGaugh JL, Roozendaal B. 2010. Glucocorticoids in the prefrontal cortex enhance memory consolidation and impair working memory by a common neural mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:16655–16660.
  • Becker S, Wojtowicz JM. 2007. A model of hippocampal neurogenesis in memory and mood disorders. Trends Cogn Sci 11: 70–76.
  • Bednarczyk MR, Hacker LC, Fortin-Nunez S, Aumont A, Bergeron R, Fernandes KJL. 2011. Distinct stages of adult hippocampal neurogenesis are regulated by running and the running environment. Hippocampus 21:1334 1347.
  • Belanger M, Magistretti PJ. 2010. The role of astroglia in neuroprotection. Dialog Clin Neurosci 11:281–296.
  • Bessa JM, Ferreira D, Melo I, Marques F, Cerqueira JJ, Palha JA, . 2009. The mood-improving actions of antidepressants do not depend on neurogenesis but are associated with neuronal remodeling. Mol Psychiat 14:764–773.
  • Blaiss CA, Yu TS, Zhang G, Chen J, Dimchev G, Parada LF, . 2011. Temporally specified genetic ablation of neurogenesis impairs cognitive recovery after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci 31:4906–4916.
  • Boku S, Nakagawa S, Koyama T. 2010. Glucocorticoids and lithium in adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Vitam Horm 82:421–431.
  • Boku S, Nakagawa S, Masuda T, Nishikawa H, Kato A, Toda H, . 2011. Effects of mood stabilizers on adult dentate gyrus-derived neural precursor cells. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatr 35:111 117.
  • Boldrini M, Arango V. 2010. Antidepressants, age, and neuroprogenitors. Neuropsychopharmacol Rev 35:351–352.
  • Boldrini M, Underwood MD, Hen R, Rosoklija GB, Dwork AJ, Mann JJ, Arango V. 2009. Antidepressants increase neural progenitor cells in the human hippocampus. Neuropsychopharmacology 34:2376–2389.
  • Bossini L, Tavanti M, Lombardelli A, Calossi S, Polizzotto NR, Galli R, . 2007. Changes in hippocampal volume in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder after sertraline treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 27:233–235.
  • Chen H, Pandey GN, Dwivedi Y. 2006. Hippocampal cell proliferation regulation by repeated stress and antidepressants. Neuroreport 17:863–867.
  • Connor TJ, Leonard BE. 1998. Depression, stress and immunological activation: the role of cytokines in depressive disorders. Life Sci 62:583–606.
  • Cowen DS, Takase LF, Fornal CA, Jacobs BL. 2008. Age-dependent decline in hippocampal neurogenesis is not altered by chronic treatment with fluoxetine. Brain Res 1228:14–19.
  • Crupi R, Mazzon E, Marino A, La Spada G, Bramanti P, Cuzzocrea S, Spina E. 2010. Melatonin treatment mimics the antidepressant action in chronic corticosterone-treated mice. J Pineal Res 49:123–129.
  • DeCarolis NA, Eisch AJ. 2010. Hippocampal neurogenesis as a target for the treatment of mental illness: a critical evaluation. Neuropharmacology 58:884–893.
  • Delaloye C, de Bilbao F, Moy G, Baudois S, Weber K, Campos L, . 2009. Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological features of euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 17:1012–1021.
  • Deng W, Aimone JB, Gage FH. 2010. New neurons and new memories: how does adult hippocampal neurogenesis affect learning and memory? Nature Rev Neurosci 11:339–350.
  • Döbrössy MD, Drapeau E, Aurousseau C, Le Moal M, Piazza PV, Abrous DN. 2003. Differential effects of learning on neurogenesis: learning increases or decreases the number of newly born cells depending on their birth date. Mol Psychiatry 8:974–982.
  • Drew MR, Hen R. 2007. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis as target for the treatment of depression. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 6:205–218.
  • Drzyzga ŁR, Marcinowska A, Obuchowicz E. 2009. Antiapoptotic and neurotrophic effects of antidepressants: a review of clinical and experimental studies. Brain Res Bull 79:248–257.
  • Du J, Creson TK, Wu LJ, Ren M, Gray NA, Falke C, . 2008. The role of hippocampal Glu-1-Glu-2 receptors in manic-like behavior. J Neurosci 28:68–79.
  • Duman RS. 2004. Depression: a case of neuronal life and death? Biol Psychiatry 56:140–145.
  • Duman R, Monteggia LM. 2006. A neurotrophic model for stress related mood disorders. Biol Psychiatry 59:1116–1127.
  • Dupret D, Fabre A, Döbrössy MD, Panatier A, Rodríguez JJ, nLamarque S, . 2007. Spatial learning depends on both the addition and removal of new hippocampal neurons. PLoS Biol 5(8):e214.
  • Ebdrup BH, Glenthøj B, Rasmussen H, Aggernaes B, Langkilde AR, Paulson OB, . 2010. Hippocampal and caudate volume reductions in antipsychotic-naive first-episode schizophrenia. J Psychiatry Neurosci 35:95–104.
  • Eisch AJ, Cameron HA, Encinas JM, Meltzer LA, Ming GL, Overstreet-Wadiche LS. 2008. Adult neurogenesis, mental health, and mental illness: hope or hype? J Neurosci 28: 11785–11791.
  • Elder GA, De Gasperi R, Gama Sosa MA. 2006. Research update: neurogenesis in adult brain and neuropsychiatric disorders. Mt Sinai J Med 73:931–940.
  • Epp JR, Scott NA, Galea LA. 2011. Strain differences in neurogenesis and activation of new neurons in the dentate gyrus in response to spatial learning. Neurosci 172:342 354.
  • Eriksson PS, Perfilieva E, Björk-Eriksson T, Alborn AM, Nordborg C, Peterson DA, Gage FH. 1998. Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature Med 4:1313–1317.
  • Farina C, Alois F, Meini E. 2007. Astrocytes are active players in cerebral innate immunity. Trends Immunol 28:138–145.
  • Fasano C, Poirier A, DesGroseillers L, Trudeau LE. 2008. Chronic activation of the D2 dopamine autoreceptor inhibits synaptogenesis in mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons in vitro. Eur J Neurosci 28:1480–1490.
  • Gould E. 2007. How widespread is adult neurogenesis in mammals? Nat Rev Neurosci 8:481–488.
  • Gruber O, Tost H, Henseler I, Schmael C, Scherk H, Ende G, . 2010. Pathological amygdala activation during working memory performance: evidence for a pathophysiological trait marker in bipolar affective disorder. Human Brain Mapp 31:115–125.
  • Gruber O, Zilles D, Kennel J, Gruber E, Falkai P. 2011. A systematic experimental neuropsychological investigation of the functional integrity of working memory circuits in major depression. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 261:179 184.
  • Hajisoltani R, Rashidy-Pour A, Vafaei AA, Ghaderdoost B, Bandegi AR, Motamedi F. 2011. The glucocorticoid system is required for the voluntary exercise-induced enhancement of learning and memory in rats. Behav Brain Res 219:75–81.
  • Hoffman BM, Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Smith PJ, Rogers SD, Doraiswamy PM, Sherwood A. 2008. Exercise fails to improve neurocognition in depressed middle-aged and older adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 40:1344–1352.
  • Hoffman BM, Babyak MA, Craighead WE, Sherwood A, Doraiswamy PM, Coons MJ, Blumenthal JA. 2011. Exercise and pharmacotherapy in patients with major depression: one-year follow-up of the SMILE study. Psychosom Med 73: 127–133.
  • Holick KA, Lee DC, Hen R, Dulawa SC. 2008. Behavioral effects of chronic fluoxetine in BALB/cJ mice do not require adult hippocampal neurogenesis or the serotonin 1A receptor. Neuropsychopharmacology 33:406–417.
  • Huang GJ, Bannerman D, Flint J. 2008. Chronic fluoxetine treatment alters behavior, but not adult hippocampal neurogenesis, in BALB/cJ mice. Mol Psychiatry 13:119–121.
  • Jaholkowski P, Kiryk A, Jedynak P, Ben Abdallah NM, Knapska E, Kowalczyk A, . 2009. New hippocampal neurons are not obligatory for memory formation; cyclin D2 knockout mice with no adult brain neurogenesis show learning. Learn Mem 16:439–451.
  • Kee N, Teixeira CM, Wang AH, Frankland PW. 2007. Preferential incorporation of adult-generated granule cells into spatial memory networks in the dentate gyrus. Nature Neurosci 10:355–362.
  • Kempermann G. 2011. Adult neurogenesis 2: Stem cells and neuronal development in the adult brain. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Kempermann G, Kronenberg G. 2003. Depressed new neurons – adult hippocampal neurogenesis and a cellular plasticity hypothesis of major depression. Biol Psychiatry 54:499–503.
  • Kempermann G, Krebs J, Fabel K. 2008. The contribution of failing adult hippocampal neurogenesis to psychiatric disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry 21:290–295.
  • Kendell ST, Krystal JH, Sana Cora G. 2005. Gaba and glutamate systems on therapeutic targets of depression and mood disorders. Expert Opin Ther Targets 9:153–168.
  • Kenis G, Maes M. 2002. Effects of antidepressants on the production of cytokines. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 5:401–412.
  • Kennedy DP, Redcay E, Courchesne E. 2006. Failing to deactivate: resting functional abnormalities in autism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:8275–8280.
  • Khairova RA, Machado-Vierira R, Du J, Manji HK. 2009. A potential role for proinflammatory cytokines in regulating synaptic plasticity in major depressive disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 12:561–578.
  • Klaus F, Amrein I. 2011. Running in laboratory and wild rodents: Differences in context sensitivity and plasticity of hippocampal neurogenesis. Behav Brain Res 2011 [Epub ahead of print] (doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.04.027).
  • Kobayashi K, Ikeda Y, Sakai A, Yamasaki N, Haneda E, Miyakawa T, Suzuki H. 2010. Reversal of hippocampal neuronal maturation by serotonergic antidepressants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:8434–8439.
  • Kohler SJ, Williams NI, Stanton GB, Cameron JL, Greenough WT. 2011. Maturation time of new granule cells in the dentate gyrus of adult macaque monkeys exceeds six months. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:10326–10331.
  • Kornack DR, Rakic P. 2001. Cell proliferation without neurogenesis in adult primate neocortex. Science 294:2127–2130.
  • Krishnan V, Nestler EJ. 2008. The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature 455:894–902.
  • Kucyi A, Alsuwaidan MT, Liauw SS, McIntyre RS. 2010. Aerobic physical exercise as a possible treatment for neurocognitive dysfunction in bipolar disorder. Postgrad Med 122:107–116.
  • Kunugi H, Hori H, Adachi N, Numakawa T. 2010. Interface between hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in depression. Psychiatr Clin Neurosci 64:447–459.
  • Lau WM, Qiu G, Helmeste DM, Lee TMC, Tang SW, So KF. 2007. Corticosteroid decreases subventricular zone cell proliferation, which could be reversed by paroxetine. Restorative Neurol Neurosci 25:17–23.
  • Lawlor DA, Hopker SW. 2001. The effectiveness of exercise as an intervention in the management of depression: systematic review and meta-regression analysis of randomized controlled trials. Br Med J 322:763–767.
  • Leonard BE. 2007. Inflammation, depression and dementia: are they connected? Neurchem Res 32:1749–1756.
  • Leonard BE. 2010. The concept of depression as a dysfunction of the immune system. In: Cryan J, Leonard BE, editors. Modern trends in pharmacopsychiatry. vol 27. Basel: Karger. p 53–71.
  • Leutgeb JK, Moser EI. 2007. Enigmas of the dentate gyrus. Neuron 55:176–178.
  • Lucassen PJ, Stumpel MW, Wang Q, Aronica E. 2010. Decreased numbers of progenitor cells but no response to antidepressant drugs in the hippocampus of elderly depressed patients. Neuropharmacology 58:940–949.
  • Maes M.1999. Major depression and activation of the inflammatory response system. Adv Exp Med Biol 461:25–46.
  • Maes M, Planken VD, Stevens WJ. 1992. Leucocytosis,monocytosis and neutrophilia in severe depression. J Psychiatr Res 26: 125–134.
  • Malberg JE, Duman RS. 2003. Cell proliferation in adult hippocampus is decreased by inescapable stress: reversal by fluoxetine treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology 28: 1562–1571.
  • Malberg JE, Eisch AJ, Nestler EJ, Duman RS. 2000. Chronic antidepressant treatment increases neurogenesis in adult rat hippocampus. J Neurosci 20:9104–9110.
  • Marlatt MW, Lucassen PJ, van Praag H. 2010. Comparison of neurogenic effects of fluoxetine, duloxetine and running in mice. Brain Res 1341:93–99.
  • McEwen BS. 1999. Stress and hippocampal plasticity. Annu Rev Neurosci 22:105–122.
  • McEwen BS. 2000. The neurobiology of stress: from serendipity to clinical relevance. Brain Res 886:172–189.
  • McEwen BS. 2001. Plasticity of the hippocampus: adaptation to chronic stress and allosteric load. Ann NY Acad Sci 933: 265–277.
  • McHugh TJ, Jones MW, Quinn JJ, Balthasar N, Coppari R, Elmquist JK, . 2007. Dentate gyrus NMDA receptors mediate rapid pattern separation in the hippocampal network. Science 317:94–99.
  • Mead GE, Morley W, Campbell P, Greig CA, McMurdo M, Lawlor DA. 2009. Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3):CD004366.
  • Meitzen J, Thompson CK. 2008. Seasonal-like growth and regression of the avian song control system: neural and behavioral plasticity in adult male Gambel's white-crowned sparrows. Gen Comp Endocrinol 157:259–265.
  • Mendlewicz J, Kriwin P, Oswald P, Souery D, Alboni S, Brunello N. 2006. Shortened onset of action of antidepressants in major depression using acetylsalicylic acid augmentation: a pilot open-label study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 21:227–231.
  • Meshi D, Drew MR, Saxe M, Ansorge MS, David D, Santarelli L, . 2006. Hippocampal neurogenesis is not required for behavioral effects of environmental enrichment. Nat Neurosci 9:729–731.
  • Miller BH, Schultz LE, Gulati A, Cameron MD, Pletcher MT. 2008. Genetic regulation of behavioral and neuronal responses to fluoxetine. Neuropsychopharmacology 33:1312–1322.
  • Morgan D. 2007. Amyloid, memory and neurogenesis. Exp Neurol 205:330–335.
  • Műller N, Schwarz MJ, Dehning S, Douhe A, Cerovecki A, Goldstein-Műller B, . 2006. The cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib has therapeutic effects in major depression: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, add-on pilot study to reboxetine. Mol Psychiatry 11:680–684.
  • Myint A-M, Leonard BE, Steinbusch H, Kim Y-K. 2005. Th1,Th2,Th3 cytokine alterations in major depression. J Affect Disord 88:167–173.
  • Myint A-M, Kim Y-K, Verkerk R, Scharpé S, Steinbusch H, Leonard B. 2007. Kynurenine pathway in major depression:evidence of impaired neuroprotection. J Affect Disord 98:143–151.
  • Nasrallah HA, Hopkins T, Pixley SK. 2010. Differential effects of antipsychotic and antidepressant drugs on neurogenic regions in rats. Brain Res 1354:23–29.
  • Nedergaard M, Rausom B, Goldman SA. 2003. New roles for astrocyts: redefining the functional architecture of the brain. Trends Neurosci 26:523–530.
  • Nibuya M, Morinobu S, Duman RS. 1995. Regulation of BDNF and trk B mRNA in rat brain by chronic ECS and antidepressant treatments. J Neurosci 15:7539–7547.
  • Parachikova A, Nichol KE, Cotman CW. 2008. Short-term exercise in aged Tg2576 mice alters neuroinflammation and improves cognition. Neurobiol Dis 30:121–129.
  • Peng CH, Chiou SH, Chen SJ, Chou YC, Ku HH, Cheng CK, . 2008. Neuroprotection by imipramine against lipopolysaccharide induced apoptosis in hippocampal derived neuronal stem cells mediated by activation of BDNF and the MAPK pathway. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 18:128–140.
  • Perera TD, Coplan JD, Lisanby SH, Lipira CM, Arif M, Carpio C, . 2007. Antidepressant-induced neurogenesis in the hippocampus of adult nonhuman primates. J Neurosci 27:4894–4901.
  • Perera TD, Park S, Nemirovskaya Y. 2008. Cognitive role of neurogenesis in depression and antidepressant treatment. Neuroscientist 14:326–338.
  • Perera TD, Dwork AJ, Keegan KA, Thirumangalakudi L, Lipira CM, Joyce N, . 2011. Necessity of hippocampal neurogenesis for the therapeutic action of antidepressants in adult nonhuman primates. Plos One 6(4):e17600 (doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0017600).
  • Pickering M, Cumiskey D, O'Connor JJ. 2005. Actions of tumour necrosis factor alpha on glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the CNS. Exp Physiol 90:663–670.
  • Qiu G, Helmeste DM, Samaranayake AN, Lau WM, Lee TM, Tang SW, So KF. 2007. Modulation of the suppressive effect of corticosterone on adult rat hippocampal cell proliferation by paroxetine. Neurosci Bull 23:131–136.
  • Reif A, Fritzen S, Finger M, Strobel A, Lauer M, Schmitt A, Lesch K-P. 2006. Neural stem cell proliferation is decreased in schizophrenia, but not in depression. Mol Psychiatry 11: 514–522.
  • Ryan TJ, Grant SGN. 2009. The origin and evolution of synapses. Nat Rev Neurosci 10:701–712.
  • Sahay A, Hen R. 2007. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis in depression. Nature Neurosci 10:1110–1115.
  • Sahay A, Scobie KN, Hill AS, O'Carroll CM, Kheirbek MA, Burghardt NS, . 2011. Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation. Nature 472:466–470.
  • Salvadore G, Nugent AC, Lemaitre H, Luckenbaugh DA, Tinsley R, Cannon DM, . 2011. Prefrontal cortical abnormalities in currently depressed versus currently remitted patients with major depressive disorder. Neuroimage 54:2643–2651.
  • Santarelli L, Saxe M, Gross C, Surget A, Battaglia F, Dulawa S, . 2003. Requirement of hippocampal neurogenesis for the behavioral effects of antidepressants. Science 301:805–809.
  • Sapolsky RM.1983. Individual differences in cortisol secretory patterns in the wild baboon: role of negative feedback sensitivity. Endocrinology 113:2263–2267.
  • Sapolsky RM. 1986. Glucocorticoid toxicity in the hippocampus: reversal by supplementation with brain fuels. J Neurosci 6:2240–2244.
  • Sapolsky RM. 1989. Hypercortisolism among socially subordinate wild baboons originates at the CNS level. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46:1047–1051.
  • Schloesser RJ, Huang J, Klein PS, Manji HK. 2008. Cellular plasticity cascades in the pathophysiology and treatment of bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 33:110–133.
  • Smith PJ, Blumenthal JA, Hoffman BM, Cooper H, Strauman TA, Welsh-Bohmer K, . 2010. Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychosom Med 72:239–252.
  • Snyder JS, Cameron HA. 2011. Could adult hippocampal neurogenesis be relevant for human behavior? Behav Brain Res 28 June [Epub ahead of print].
  • Snyder JS, Soumier A, Brewer M, Pickel J, Cameron HA. 2011. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis buffers stress responses and depressive behaviour. Nature 476:458 461.
  • Surget A, Tanti A, Leonardo ED, Laugeray A, Rainer Q, Touma C, . 2011. Antidepressants recruit new neurons to improve stress response regulation. Mol Psychiatry 16:1177 1188.
  • Tang SW, Chu E, Hui T, Helmeste D, Law C. 2008. Influence of exercise on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor concentrations in healthy human subjects. Neurosci Lett 431:62–65.
  • Tanis K, Newton SS, Duman RS. 2007. Targeting neurotrophic growth factor expression and signaling for antidepressant drug development. CNS Neurol Disord 6:151–160.
  • Thomas RM, Peterson DA. 2008. Even neural stem cells get the blues: evidence for a molecular link between modulation of adult neurogenesis and depression. Gene Expr 14:183–193.
  • Thompson A, Boekhoorn K, Van Dam AM, Lucassen PJ. 2008. Changes in adult neurogenesis in neurodegenerative diseases: cause or consequence? Genes Brain Behav 7(Suppl 1):28–42.
  • Thompson CK, Bentley GE, Brenowitz EA .2007. Rapid seasonal-like regression of the adult avian song control system. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:15520–15525.
  • Tost H, Braus DF, Hakimi S, Ruf M, Vollmert C, Hohn F, Meyer-Lindenberg A. 2010. Acute D(2) receptor blockade induces rapid, reversible remodeling in human cortical–striatal circuits. Nat Neurosci 13:920–922.
  • Tottenham N, Hare TA, Quinn BT, McCarry TW, Nurse M, Gilhooly T, . 2010. Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Dev Sci 13:46–61.
  • Trouche S, Bontempi B, Roullet P, Rampon C. 2009. Recruitment of adult-generated neurons into functional hippocampal networks contributes to updating and strengthening of spatial memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:5919–5924.
  • Vaidya VA, Fernandes K, Jha S. 2007. Regulation of adult hippocampal neurogenesis: relevance to depression. Expert Rev Neurother 7:853–864.
  • van der Plas EA, Boes AD, Wemmie JA, Tranel D, Nopoulos P. 2010. Amygdala volume correlates positively with fearfulness in normal healthy girls. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 5:424 431.
  • van Praag H. 2008. Neurogenesis and exercise: past and future directions. Neuromolecular Med 10:128–140.
  • van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH. 1999. Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus. Nat Neurosci 2:266–270.
  • Vessal M, Darian-Smith C. 2010. Adult neurogenesis occurs in primate sensorimotor cortex following cervical dorsal rhizotomy. J Neurosci 30:8613–8623.
  • Warner-Schmidt JL, Vanover KE, Chen EY, Marshall JJ, Greengard P. 2011. Antidepressant effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are attenuated by antiinflammatory drugs in mice and humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:9262–9267.
  • Wignall EL, Dickson JM, Vaughan P, Farrow TF, Wilkinson ID, Hunter MD, Woodruff PW. 2004. Smaller hippocampal volume in patients with recent-onset posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 56:832–836.
  • Witthaus H, Mendes U, Brüne M, Ozgürdal S, Bohner G, Gudlowski Y, . 2010. Hippocampal subdivision and amygdalar volumes in patients in an at-risk mental state for schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Neurosci 35:33–40.
  • Wu SY, Wang TF, Yu L, Jen CJ, Chuang JI, Wu FS, . 2011. Running exercise protects the substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons against inflammation-induced degeneration via the activation of BDNF signaling pathway. Brain Behav Immun 25:135–146.
  • Yang H, Chuzi S, Sinicropi-Yao L, Johnson D, Chen Y, Clain A, . 2010. Type of residual symptom and risk of relapse during the continuation/maintenance phase treatment of major depressive disorder with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 260:145–150.
  • Yuste R. 2010. Dendritic spines. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.