1,371
Views
315
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

A critical review of the biological mechanisms underlying the in vivo and in vitro toxicity of carbon nanotubes: The contribution of physico-chemical characteristics

, , , , , & show all
Pages 207-246 | Received 14 Aug 2009, Accepted 09 Dec 2009, Published online: 03 Feb 2010

References

  • Belyanskaya L, Manser P, Spohn P, Bruinink A, Wick P. 2007. The reliability and limits of the MTT reduction assay for carbon nanotubes-cell interaction. Carbon 45:2643–2648.
  • Belyanskaya L, Weigel S, Hirsch C, Tobler U, Krug HF, Wick P. 2009. Effects of carbon nanotubes on primary neurons and glial cells. NeuroToxicol 30:702–711.
  • Bottini M, Bruckner S, Nika K, Bottini N, Bellucci S, Magrini A, Bergamaschi A, Mustelin T. 2006. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes induce T lymphocyte apoptosis. Toxicol Lett 160:121–126.
  • Brown DM, Beswick PH, Donaldson K. 1999. Induction of nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB in epithelial cells by respirable mineral fibres. J Pathol 189:258–264.
  • Brown DM, Wilson MR, MacNee W, Stone V, Donaldson K. 2001. Size-dependent proinflammatory effects of ultrafine polystyrene particles: A role for surface area and oxidative stress in the enhanced activity of ultrafines. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 175:191–199.
  • Brown D, Donaldson K, Stone V. 2004. Effects of PM10 in human peripheral blood monocytes and J774 macrophages. Respir Res 5:29–41.
  • Brown DM, Kinloch IA, Bangert U, Windle AH, Walter DM, Walker GS, Scotchford CA, Donaldson K, Stone V. 2007. An in vitro study of the potential of carbon nanotubes and nanofibres to induce inflammation mediators and frustrated phagocytosis. Carbon 45:1743–1756.
  • BSi Terminology for Nanomaterials. 2007. http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/Browse-By-Subject/Nanotechnology/Terminologies-for-nanotechnologies/
  • Carrero-Sanchez JC, Elias AL, Mancilla R, Arrellin G, Terrones H, Laclette JP, Terrones M. 2006. Biocompatibility and toxicological studies of carbon nanotubes doped with nitrogen. Nano Lett 6:1609–1616.
  • Casey A, Herzog E, Davoren M, Lyng FM, Byrne HJ, Chambers G. 2007a. Spectroscopic analysis confirms the interactions between single walled carbon nanotubes and various dyes commonly used to assess cytotoxicity. Carbon 45:1425–1432.
  • Casey A, Davoren M, Herzog E, Lyng FM, Byrne HJ, Chambers G. 2007b. Probing the interaction of single walled carbon nanotubes within cell culture medium as a precursor to toxicity testing. Carbon 45:34–40.
  • Cheng J, Chan CM, Veca LM, Poon WL, Chan PK, Qu L, Sun YP, Cheng SH. 2009. Acute and long-term effects after single loading of functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes into zebrafish (Danio rerio). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 235:216–225.
  • Cheng J, Flahaut E, Cheng SH. 2007. Effect of carbon nanotubes on developing zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. Environ Toxicol Chem 26:708–716.
  • Cherukuri P, Bachilo SM, Litovsky SH, Weisman RB. 2004. Near-infrared fluorescence microscopy of single-walled carbon nanotubes in phagocytic cells. J Am Chem Soc 126:15638–15639.
  • Cherukuri P, Gannon CJ, Leeuw TK, Schmidt HK, Smalley RE, Curley SA, Weisman RB. 2006. Mammalian pharmacokinetics of carbon nanotubes using intrinsic near-infrared fluorescence. PNAS USA 103:18882–18886.
  • Chou CC, Hsiao HY, Hong QS, Chen CH, Peng YW, Chen HW, Yang PC. 2008. Single-walled carbon nanotubes can induce pulmonary injury in mouse model. Nano Lett 8:437–445.
  • Davoren M, Herzog E, Casey A, Cottineau B, Chambers G, Byrne HJ, Lyng FM. 2007. In vitro toxicity evaluation of single walled carbon nanotubes on human A549 lung cells. Toxicol In Vitro 21:438–448.
  • Deng X, Jia G, Wang H, Sun H, Wang X, Yang S, Wang T, Liu Y. 2007. Translocation and fate of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in vivo. Carbon 45:1419–1424.
  • Di SA, Chiaretti M, Carru GA, Bellucci S, Mazzanti G. 2009. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes: Lack of mutagenic activity in the bacterial reverse mutation assay. Toxicol Lett 184:192–197.
  • Ding L, Stilwell J, Zhang T, Elboudwarej O, Jiang H, Selegue JP, Cooke PA, Gray JW, Chen FF. 2005. Molecular characterization of the cytotoxic mechanism of multiwall carbon nanotubes and nano-onions on human skin fibroblast. Nano Lett 5:2448–2464.
  • Donaldson K, Stone V. 2003. Current hypotheses on the mechanisms of toxicity of ultrafine particles. Annali dell ‘Istituto Superiore di Sanita 39:405–410.
  • Donaldson K, Aitken R, Tran L, Stone V, Duffin R, Forrest G, Alexander A. 2006. Carbon nanotubes: A review of their properties in relation to pulmonary toxicology and workplace safety. Toxicol Sci 92:5–22.
  • Dumortier H, Lacotte S, Pastorin G, Marega R, Wu W, Bonifazi D, Briand JP, Prato M, Muller S, Bianco A. 2006. Functionalized carbon nanotubes are non-cytotoxic and preserve the functionality of primary immune cells. Nano Lett 6:1522–1528.
  • Folkmann JK, Risom L, Jacobsen NR, Wallin H, Loft S, Møller P. 2009. Oxidatively damaged DNA in rats exposed by oral gavage to C60 fullerenes and single-walled carbon nanotubes. Environ Health Perspect 117:703–708.
  • Gharbi N, Pressac M, Hadchouel M, Szwarc H, Wilson SR, Moussa F. 2005. [60]Fullerene is a powerful antioxidant in vivo with no acute or subacute toxicity. Nano Lett 5:2578–2585.
  • Grubek-Jaworska H, Nejman P, Czuminska K, Przybylowski T, Huczko A, Lange H, Bystrzejewski M, Baranowski P, Chazan R. 2006. Preliminary results on the pathogenic effects of intratracheal exposure to one-dimensional nanocarbons. Carbon 44:1057–1063.
  • Guo L, Morris DG, Liu X, Vaslet C, Kane AB, Hurt RH. 2007. Iron bioavailability and redox activity in diverse carbon nanotube samples. Chem Mat 19:3472–3478.
  • Han SG, Andrews R, Gairola CG, Bhalla DK. 2008. Acute pulmonary effects of combined exposure to carbon nanotubes and ozone in mice. Inhal Toxicol 20:391–398.
  • Helfenstein M, Miragoli M, Rohr S, Muller L, Wick P, Mohr M, Gehr P, Rothen-Rutishauser B. 2008. Effects of combustion-derived ultrafine particles and manufactured nanoparticles on heart cells in vitro. Toxicology 253:70–78.
  • Hirano S, Kanno S, Furuyama A. 2008. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes injure the plasma membrane of macrophages. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 232:244–251.
  • Hutchison GR, Brown DM, Hibbs LR, Heal MR, Donaldson K, Maynard RL, Monaghan M, Nichol LA, Stone V. 2005. The effect of refurbishing a UK steel plant on PM10 metal composition and ability to induce inflammation. Respir Res 18:43–59.
  • Inoue K, Takano H, Koike E, Yanagisawa R, Sakurai M, Tasaka S, Ishizaka A, Shimada A. 2008. Effects of pulmonary exposure to carbon nanotubes on lung and systemic inflammation with coagulatory disturbance induced by lipopolysaccharide in mice. Exp Biol Med 233:1583–1590.
  • Jacobsen NR, Møller P, Alstrup K, Jensen A, Vogel U, Ladefoged O, Loft S, Wallin H. 2009. Lung inflammation and genotoxicity following pulmonary exposure to nanoparticles in ApoE-/- mice. Part Fibre Toxicol 6:2.
  • Jacobsen NR, Pojana G, White P, Moller P, Cohn CA, Korsholm KS, Vogel U, Marcomini A, Loft S, Wallin H. 2008. Genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and reactive oxygen species induced by single-walled carbon nanotubes and C(60) fullerenes in the FE1-Mutatrade markMouse lung epithelial cells. Environ Mol Mutagen 49:476–487.
  • Janssen YM, Barchowsky A, Treadwell M, Driscoll KE, Mossman BT. 1995. Asbestos induces nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B) DNA-binding activity and NF-kappa B-dependent gene expression in tracheal epithelial cells. PNAS USA 92:8458–8462.
  • Jia G, Wang H, Yan L, Wang X, Pei R, Yan T, Zhao Y, Guo X. 2005. Cytotoxicity of carbon nanomaterials: Single-wall nanotube, multi-wall nanotube, and fullerene. Environ Sci Technol 39:1378–1383.
  • Jimenez LA, Thompson J, Brown DA, Rahman I, Antonicelli F, Duffin R, Drost EM, Hay RT, Donaldson K, MacNee W. 2000. Activation of NF-kappaB by PM(10) occurs via an iron-mediated mechanism in the absence of IkappaB degradation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 166:101–110.
  • Kagan VE, Tyurina YY, Tyurin VA, Konduru NV, Potapovich AI, Osipov AN, Kisin ER, Schwegler-Berry D, Mercer R, Castranova V, Shvedova AA. 2006. Direct and indirect effects of single walled carbon nanotubes on RAW 264.7 macrophages: Role of iron. Toxicol Lett 165:88–100.
  • Kam NW, Jessop TC, Wender PA, Dai H. 2004. Nanotube molecular transporters: Internalisation of carbon nanotube-protein conjugates into mammalian cells. J Am Soc 126:6850–6851.
  • Karajanagi SS, Vertegel AA, Kane RS, Dordick JS. 2004. Structure and function of enzymes adsorbed onto single-walled carbon nanotubes. Langmuir 20:11594–11599.
  • Kisin ER, Murray AR, Keane MJ, Shi XC, Schwegler-Berry D, Gorelik O, Arepalli S, Castranova V, Wallace WE, Kagan VE, Shvedova AA. 2007. Single-walled carbon nanotubes: Geno- and cytotoxic effects in lung fibroblast V79 cells. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70:2071–2079.
  • Knaapen AM, Seiler F, Schilderman PA, Nehls P, Bruch J, Schins RP, Borm PJ. 1999. Neutrophils cause oxidative DNA damage in alveolar epithelial cells. Free Rad Biol Med 27:234–240.
  • Konduru NV, Tyurina YY, Feng Y, Basova LV, Belikova NA, Bayir HI, Clark K, Rubin M, Stolz D, Vallhov H, Scheynius A, Witasp E, Fadeel B, Kichambare PD, Star A, Kisin ER, Murray AR, Shvedova AA, Kagan VE. 2009. Phosphatidylserine targets single-walled carbon nanotubes to professional phagocytes in vitro and in vivo. PLoS 4:4398.
  • Kostarelos K, Lacerda L, Pastorin G, Wu W, Wieckowski S, Luangsivilay J, Godefroy S, Pantarotto D, Briand JP, Muller S, Prato M, Bianco A. 2007. Cellular uptake of functionalized carbon nanotubes is independent of functional group and cell type. Nat Nanotech 2:108–113.
  • Koyama S, Endo M, Kim YA, Hayashi T, Yanagisawa T, Osaka K, Koyama H, Hania H, Kuroiwa N. 2006. Role of systemic T-cells and histopathological aspects after subcutaneous implantation of various carbon nanotubes in mice. Carbon 44:1079–1092.
  • Krajcik R, Jung A, Hirsch A, Neuhuber W, Zolk O. 2008. Functionalization of carbon nanotubes enables non-covalent binding and intracellular delivery of small interfering RNA for efficient knock-down of genes. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 369:595–602.
  • Lacerda L, li-Boucetta H, Herrero MA, Pastorin G, Bianco A, Prato M, Kostarelos K. 2008. Tissue histology and physiology following intravenous administration of different types of functionalized multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Nanomed 3:149–161.
  • Lam CW, James JT, McCluskey R, Arepalli S, Hunter RL. 2006. A review of carbon nanotube toxicity and assessment of potential occupational and environmental health risks. Crit Rev Toxicol 36:189–217.
  • Lam CW, James JT, McCluskey R, Hunter RL. 2004. Pulmonary toxicity of single-wall carbon nanotubes in mice 7 and 90 days after intratracheal instillation. Toxicol Sci 77:126–134.
  • Li JG, Li WX, Xu JY, Cai XQ, Liu RL, Li YJ, Zhao QF, Li QN. 2007a. Comparative study of pathological lesions induced by multiwalled carbon nanotubes in lungs of mice by intratracheal instillation and inhalation. Environ Toxicol 22:415–421.
  • Li Z, Hulderman T, Salmen R, Chapman R, Leonard SS, Young SH, Shvedova AA, Luster MI, Simeonova PP. 2007b. Cardiovascular effects of pulmonary exposure to single-wall carbon nanotubes. Environ Health Perspect 115:377–382.
  • Lindberg HK, Falck GCM, Suhonen S, Vippola M, Vanhala E, Catalán J, Savolainen K, Norppa H. 2009. Genotoxicity of nanomaterials: DNA damage and micronuclei induced by carbon nanotubes and graphite nanofibres in human bronchial epithelial cells in vitro. Toxicol Lett 186:166–173.
  • MacNee W, Donaldson K. 2003. Mechanism of lung injury caused by PM10 and ultrafine particles with special reference to COPD. Euro Respir J 21:47s–51s.
  • Magrez A, Kasas S, Salicio V, Pasquier N, Seo JW, Celio M, Catsicas S, Schwaller B, Forro L. 2006. Cellular toxicity of carbon-based nanomaterials. Nano Lett 6:1121–1125.
  • Manna SK, Sarkar S, Barr J, Wise K, Barrera EV, Jejelowo O, Rice-Ficht AC, Ramesh GT. 2005. Single-walled carbon nanotube induces oxidative stress and activates nuclear transcription factor-kappaB in human keratinocytes. Nano Lett 5:1676–1684.
  • Maynard AD, Baron PA, Foley M, Shvedova AA, Kisin ER, Castranova V. 2004. Exposure to carbon nanotube material: Aerosol release during the handling of unrefined single-walled carbon nanotube material. J Toxicol Environ Health A 67:87–107.
  • Maynard AD, Aitken RJ, Butz T, Colvin V, Donaldson K, Oberdörster G, Philbert MA, Ryan J, Seaton A, Stone V, Tinkle SS, Tran L, Walker NJ, Warheit DB. 2006. Safe handling in nanotechnology. Nature 444:267–269.
  • Mercer RR, Scabilloni J, Wang L, Kisin E, Murray AR, Schwegler-Berry D, Shvedova AA, Castranova V. 2008. Alteration of deposition pattern and pulmonary response as a result of improved dispersion of aspirated single-walled carbon nanotubes in a mouse model. Am J Physiol- Lung Cell Mol Physiol 294:L87–97.
  • Mitchell LA, Gao J, Wal RV, Gigliotti A, Burchiel SW, McDonald JD. 2007. Pulmonary and systemic immune response to inhaled multiwalled carbon nanotubes. Toxicol Sci 100:203–214.
  • Monteiro-Riviere N, Inman AO. 2006. Challenges for assessing carbon nanomaterial toxicity to the skin. Carbon 44:1070–1078.
  • Monteiro-Riviere NA, Nemanich RJ, Inman AO, Wang YY, Riviere JE. 2005a. Multi-walled carbon nanotube interactions with human epidermal keratinocytes. Toxicol Lett 155:377–384.
  • Monteiro-Riviere NA, Inman AO, Wang YY, Nemanich RJ. 2005b. Surfactant effects on carbon nanotube interactions with human keratinocytes. Nanomedicine : Nanotechnol, Biol Med 1:293–299.
  • Mossman BT, Kamp DW, Weitzman SA. 1996. Mechanisms of carcinogenesis and clinical features of asbestos-associated cancers. Canc Invest 14:466–480.
  • Muller J, Decordier I, Hoet PH, Lombaert N, Thomassen L, Huaux F, Lison D, Kirsch-Volders M. 2008. Clastogenic and aneugenic effects of multi-wall carbon nanotubes in epithelial cells. Carcinogen 29:427–433.
  • Muller J, Delos M, Panin N, Rabolli V, Huaux F, Lison D. 2009. Absence of carcinogenic response to multiwall carbon nanotubes in a 2-year bioassay in the peritoneal cavity of the rat. Toxicol Sci 110;442–448.
  • Muller J, Huaux F, Moreau N, Misson P, Heilier JF, Delos M, Arras M, Fonseca A, Nagy JB, Lison D. 2005. Respiratory toxicity of multi-wall carbon nanotubes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 207:221–231.
  • Murr LE, Garza KM, Soto KF, Carrasco A, Powell TG, Ramirez DA, Guerrero PA, Lopez DA, Venzor J III. 2005. Cytotoxicity assessment of some carbon nanotubes and related carbon nanoparticle aggregates and the implications for anthropogenic carbon nanotube aggregates in the environment. Int J Environ Res Pub Health 2:31–42.
  • Murray AR, Kisin E, Leonard SS, Young SH, Kommineni C, Kagan VE, Castranova V, Shvedova AA. 2009. Oxidative stress and inflammatory response in dermal toxicity of single-walled carbon nanotubes. Toxicology 257:161–171.
  • Nel A, Xia T, Madler L, Li N. 2006. Toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel. Science 311:622–627.
  • Nimmagadda A, Thurston K, Nollert MU, McFetridge PS. 2006. Chemical modification of SWNT alters in vitro cell-SWNT interactions. J Biomed Mat Res A 76:614–625.
  • Oberdörster G, Stone V, Donaldson K. 2007. Toxicology of nanoparticles: A historical perspective. Nanotoxicology 1:2–25.
  • Pacurari M, Yin XJ, Zhao J, Ding M, Leonard SS, Schwegler-Berry D, Ducatman BS, Sbarra D, Hoover MD, Castranova V, Vallyathan V. 2008. Raw single-wall carbon nanotubes induce oxidative stress and activate MAPKs, AP-1, NF-kappaB, and Akt in normal and malignant human mesothelial cells. Environ Health Perspect 116:1211–1217.
  • Pantarotto D, Briand JP, Prato M, Bianco A. 2004. Translocation of bioactive peptides across cell membranes by carbon nanotubes. Chem Commun (Cam) 7:16–17.
  • Poland CA, Duffin R, Kinloch IA, Maynard A, Wallace WAH, Seaton A, Stone V, Brown S, MacNee W, Donaldson K. 2008. Carbon nanotubes introduced into the abdominal cavity of mice show asbestos-like pathogenicity in a pilot study. Nat Nanotechnol 3:423–428.
  • Pope CA, Dockery DW. 1999. Epidemiology of particle effects. In: Holgate ST, Samet JM, Koren HS, editors. Air pollution and health. San Diego: Academic Press. pp 673–705.
  • Porter AE, Gass M, Muller K, Skepper JN, Midgley PA, Welland M. 2007. Direct imaging of single-walled carbon nanotubes in cells. Nat Nanotechnol 2:713–717.
  • Pulskamp K, Diabate S, Krug HF. 2007. Carbon nanotubes show no sign of acute toxicity but induce intracellular reactive oxygen species in dependence on contaminants. Toxicol Lett 168:58–74.
  • Radomski A, Jurasz P, Alonso-Escolano D, Drews M, Morandi M, Malinski T, Radomski MW. 2005. Nanoparticle-induced platelet aggregation and vascular thrombosis. Brit J Pharmacol 146:882–893.
  • Raja PM, Connolley J, Ganesan GP, Ci L, Ajayan PM, Nalamasu O, Thompson DM 2007. Impact of carbon nanotube exposure, dosage and aggregation on smooth muscle cells. Toxicol Lett 169:51–63.
  • Rotoli BM, Bussolati O, Bianchi MG, Barilli A, Balasubramanian C, Bellucci S, Bergamaschi E. 2008. Non-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes alter the paracellular permeability of human airway epithelial cells. Toxicol Lett 178:95–102.
  • Sakamoto Y, Nakae D, Fukumori N, Tayama K, Maekawa A, Imai K, Hirose A, Nishimura T, Ohashi N, Ogata A. 2009. Induction of mesothelioma by a single intrascrotal administration of multi-wall carbon nanotube in intact male Fischer 344 rats. J Toxicol Sci 34(1):65–76.
  • Sato Y, Yokoyama A, Shibata K, Akimoto Y, Ogino S, Nodasaka Y, Kohgo T, Tamura K, Akasaka T, Uo M, Motomiya K, Jeyadevan B, Ishiguro M, Hatakeyama R, Watari F, Tohji K. 2005. Influence of length on cytotoxicity of multi-walled carbon nanotubes against human acute monocytic leukemia cell line THP-1 in vitro and subcutaneous tissue of rats in vivo. Mol Biosys 1:176–182.
  • Sayes CM, Liang F, Hudson JL, Mendez J, Guo W, Beach JM, Moore VC, Doyle CD, West JL, Billups WE, Ausman KD, Colvin VL. 2006. Functionalization density dependence of single-walled carbon nanotubes cytotoxicity in vitro. Toxicol Lett 161:135–142.
  • Schins RP. 2002. Mechanisms of genotoxicity of particles and fibers. Inhal Toxicol 14:57–78.
  • Selikoff IJ. 1990. Historical developments and perspectives in inorganic fiber toxicity in man. Environ Health Perspect 88:269–276.
  • Shvedova AA, Castranova V, Kisin ER, Schwegler-Berry D, Murray AR, Gandelsman VZ, Maynard A, Baron P. 2003. Exposure to carbon nanotube material: Assessment of nanotube cytotoxicity using human keratinocyte cells. J Toxicol Environ Health A 66:1909–1926.
  • Shvedova AA, Kisin ER, Mercer R, Murray AR, Johnson VJ, Potapovich AI, Tyurina YY, Gorelik O, Arepalli S, Schwegler-Berry D, Hubbs AF, Antonini J, Evans DE, Ku BK, Ramsey D, Maynard A, Kagan VE, Castranova V, Baron P. 2005. Unusual inflammatory and fibrogenic pulmonary responses to single-walled carbon nanotubes in mice. Am J Physiol- Lung Cell Mol Physiol 289:L698–708.
  • Shvedova AA, Kisin ER, Murray AR, Gorelik O, Arepalli S, Castranova V, Young SH, Gao F, Tyurina YY, Oury TD, Kagan VE. 2007. Vitamin E deficiency enhances pulmonary inflammatory response and oxidative stress induced by single-walled carbon nanotubes in C57BL/6 mice. Toxicol ApplPharmacol 221:339–348.
  • Shvedova AA, Kisin E, Murray AR, Johnson VJ, Gorelik O, Arepalli S, Hubbs AF, Mercer RR, Keohavong P, Sussman N, Jin J, Yin J, Stone S, Chen BT, Deye G, Maynard A, Castranova V, Baron PA, Kagan VE. 2008a. Inhalation vs. aspiration of single-walled carbon nanotubes in C57BL/6 mice: Inflammation, fibrosis, oxidative stress, and mutagenesis. Am J Physiol- Lung Cell Mol Physiol 295:L552–565.
  • Shvedova AA, Kisin ER, Murray AR, Kommineni C, Castranova V, Fadeel B Kagan VE. 2008b. Increased accumulation of neutrophils and decreased fibrosis in the lung of NADPH oxidase-deficient C57BL/6 mice exposed to carbon nanotubes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 231:235–240.
  • Singh R, Pantarotto D, Lacerda L, Pastorin G, Klumpp C, Prato M, Bianco A, Kostarelos K. 2006. Tissue biodistribution and blood clearance rates of intravenously administered carbon nanotube radiotracers. PNAS USA 103:3357–3362.
  • Takagi A, Hirose A, Nishimura T, Fukumori N, Ogata A, Ohashi N, Kitajima S, Kanno J. 2008. Induction of mesothelioma in p53+/- mouse by intraperitoneal application of multi-wall carbon nanotube. J Toxicol Sci 33:105–116.
  • Thess A, Lee R, Nikolaev P, Dai H, Petit P, Robert J, Xu C, Lee YH, Kim SG, Rinzler AG, Colbert DT, Scuseria GE, Tomanek D, Fischer JE, Smalley RE. 1996. Crystalline ropes of metallic carbon. Nanotubes Sci. 26:483–487.
  • Tian F, Cui D, Schwarz H, Estrada GG, Kobayashi H. 2006. Cytotoxicity of single-wall carbon nanotubes on human fibroblasts. Toxicol In Vitro 20:1202–1212.
  • Wang H, Wang J, Deng X, Sun H, Shi Z, Gu Z, Liu Y, Zhao Y. 2004. Biodistribution of carbon single-walled nanotubes in mice. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 4:1019–1024.
  • Wang J, Chen C, Liu Y, Jiao F, Li W, Lao F, Li Y, Li B, Ge C, Zhou G, Gao Y, Zhao Y, Chai Z. 2008. Potential neurological lesion after nasal instillation of TiO2 nanoparticles in the anatase and rutile crystal phases. Toxicol Lett 183:72–80.
  • Warheit DB, Laurence BR, Reed KL, Roach DH, Reynolds GA, Webb TR. 2004. Comparative pulmonary toxicity assessment of single-wall carbon nanotubes in rats. Toxicol Sci 77:117–125.
  • Wick P, Manser P, Limbach LK, Dettlaff-Weglikowska U, Krumeich F, Roth S, Stark WJ, Bruinink A. 2007. The degree and kind of agglomeration affect carbon nanotube cytotoxicity. Toxicol Lett 168:121–131.
  • Wilson MR, Lightbody JH, Donaldson K, Sales J, Stone V. 2002. Interactions between ultrafine particles and transition metals in vivo and in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 184:172–179.
  • Witzmann FA, Monteiro-Riviere NA. 2006. Multi-walled carbon nanotube exposure alters protein expression in human keratinocytes. Nanomedicine 2:158–168.
  • Wirnitzer U, Herbold B, Voetz M, Ragot J. 2009. Studies on the in vitro genotoxicity of baytubes®, agglomerates of engineered multi-walled carbon-nanotubes (MWCNT), Toxicol Lett 186:160–165.
  • Wu W, Wieckowski S, Pastorin G, Benincasa M, Klumpp C, Briand JP, Gennaro R, Prato M, Bianco A. 2005. Targeted delivery of amphotericin B to cells by using functionalized carbon nanotubes. Angewandte Chem (Int Ed) 44:6358–6362.
  • Xu H, Bai J, Meng J, Hao W, Xu H, Cao JM. 2009. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes suppress potassium channel activities in C12 cells. Nanotechnology 20:1–9.
  • Yang ST, Guo W, Lin Y, Deng XY, Wang HF, Sun HF, Liu XF, Wang X, Chen M, Huang YP, Sun YP. 2007. Biodistribution of pristine single-walled carbon nanotubes in vivo. J Phys Chem C 111:17761–17764.
  • Yang ST, Wang X, Jia G, Gu Y, Wang T, Nie H, Ge C, Wang H, Liu Y. 2008. Long-term accumulation and low toxicity of single-walled carbon nanotubes in intravenously exposed mice. Toxicol Lett 181:182–189.
  • Yang H, Liu C, Yang D, Zhang H, Xi Z. 2009. Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by four typical nanomaterials: The role of particle size, shape and composition. J Appl Toxicol 29:69–78.
  • Ye SF, Wu YH, Hou ZQ, Zhang QQ. 2009. ROS and NF-kappaB are involved in upregulation of IL-8 in A549 cells exposed to multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 379:643–648.
  • Yokoyama A, Sato Y, Nodasaka Y, Yamamoto S, Kawasaki T, Shindoh M, Kohgo T, Akasaka T, Uo M, Watari F, Tohji K. 2005. Biological behavior of hat-stacked carbon nanofibers in the subcutaneous tissue in rats. Nano Lett 5:157–161.
  • Zhang LW, Zeng L, Barron AR, Monteiro-Riviere NA. 2007. Biological interactions of functionalized single-wall carbon nanotubes in human epidermal keratinocytes. Int J Toxicol 26:103–113.
  • Zhu L, Chang DW, Dai L, Hong Y. 2007. DNA damage induced by multiwalled carbon nanotubes in mouse embryonic stem cells. Nano Lett 7:3592–3597.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.