Childhood Obesity: The Possible Role of Maternal Smoking and Impact on Public Health

REFERENCES

• Agras WS, Kraemer HC, Berkowitz RI, and Hammer LD. 1990. Influence of early feeding style on adiposity at 6 years of age. J Pediatr 116(5):805–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Manson JE, Stevens J, and Van Itallie TB. 1999. Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States. JAMA 282(16): 1530–1538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anguita RM, Sigulem DM, and Sawaya AL. 1993. Intrauterine food restriction is associated with obesity in young rats. J Nutrition 123:1421–1428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curzon G. 1990. Serotonin and appetite. Annal NY Acad Sci 600:521–531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dabela D, Pettitt DJ, Jones KL, and Arslanian SA. 1999. Type 2 diabetes mellitus in minority children and adolescents: an emerging problem. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 28: 709–729.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deheeger M, Rolland-Cachera MF, and Fontvieille AM. 1997. Physical activity and body composition in 10–year old French children: linkages with nutritional intake? Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 21(5):372–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunger DB, Ong KK, and Huxtable SJ et al. 1998. Association of the INS VNTR with size at birth. ALSPAC Study Team Avon longitudinal study of pregnancy and childhood. Nat Genet 19:98–100.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fall, CHD. 2001. Non-industrialized countries and affluence. Br Med Bullet 60:33–50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fogelman KR and Manor O. 1988. Smoking in pregnancy and development into early adulthood. Br J Med 297:1233–1236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forsen T, Eriksson J, Tuomilehto J, Reunanen A, Osmond C, and Barker DJP. 2000. The fetal and childhood growth of persons who develop type 2 diabetes. Ann Intern Med 133:176–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox NL, Sexton M, and Hebel JR. 1990. Prenatal exposure to tobacco: I. Effects on physical growth at age three. Int J Epidemiol 19(1): 66–71.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fried PA. 1989. Cigarettes and marijuana: are there measureable long-term neurobehavioral teratogenic effects? NeuroToxiocology 10:577–584.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldstein H. 1971. Factors influencing the height of seven year old children—results from the National Child Development Study. Hum Biol 43(1):92–111.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goran MI and Sun M. 1998. Total energy expenditure and physical activity in prepubertal children: recent advances based on the application of the doubly labeled water method. Am J Clin Nutr 68(4):944S–949S.
   Google Scholar
• Hales CN and Barker DJP. 1992. Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: the thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia 35:595–601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hales CN and Barker, DJP. 2001. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis, Br Med Bullet 60:5–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hediger ML, Overpeck MD, Kuczmarski RJ, and Ruan WJ. 2001. Association between infant breastfeeding and overweight in young children. JAMA 285(19):2453–60.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jones AP, Pothos EN, Rada P, Olster DH, and Hoebel BG. 1995. Maternal hormonal manipulation in rats cause obesity and increase medial hypothalamic norepinephrine release in male offspring. Brain Res 88:127–131.
   Google Scholar
• Kavlock RJ, Daston GP, DeRosa C, Fenner-Crisp P, Gray LE, Kaattari S, Lucier, G Luster M, Mac MJ, Maczka C, Miller R, Moore J, Rolland R, Scott G, Sheehan DM, Sinks T, and Tilson HA. 1996. Research needs for the risk assessment of health and environmental effects of endocrine disruptors: A report of the U.S. EPA-sponsored workshop. Environ Health Perspect 104(Suppl 4):715–740.
   Google Scholar
• Kandel DB, Wu P, and Davies M. 1994. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and smoking by adolescent daughters. Am J Public Health 84(9):1407–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klesges RC, Klesges LM, Eck LH, and Shelton ML. 1995. A longitudinal analysis of accelerated weight gain in preschool children. Pediatrics 95(1):126–30.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kristjansson EA, Fried PA and Watkinson B. 1989. Maternal smoking during pregnancy affects children’s vigilance performance. Drug Alc. Depend 24:11–19.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levin ED and Slotkin TA. 1998. Developmental Neurotoxicity of Nicotine. In: Slikker W, Chang L, eds. Handbook of Developmental Neurotoxicology. Academic Press 587–615.
   Google Scholar
• Liese AD, Hirsch T, von Mutius E, Keil U, Leupold W, and Weiland SK. 2001. Inverse association of overweight and breast feeding in 9 to 10–y-old children in Germany. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25(11):1644–50.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Locard E, Mamelle N, Billette A, Miginiac M, Munoz F, and Rey S. 1992. Risk factors of obesity in a five-year-old population. Parental versus environmental factors. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 16(10):721–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery SM and Ekbom A. 2002. Smoking during pregnancy and diabetes mellitus in a British longitudinal birth cohort. BMJ 324:26–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore LL, Nguyen US, Rothman KJ, Cupples LA, and Ellison RC. 1995. Preschool physical activity level and change in body fatness in young children. The Framingham Children’s Study. Am J Epidemiol 142(9):982–8.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NCHS, CDC,2002a; Prevalence of overweight and obesity among adults: United States. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/obese/obse99.htm www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/obese/obse99.htm.
   Google Scholar
• NCHS, CDC, 2002b; Prevalence of overweight among children and adolescents: United States. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/over99fig1.htm www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/over99fig1.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Ong KK, Ahmed ML, Emmett PM, Preece MA, and Dunger DB. 2000. Association between postnatal catch-up growth and obesity in childhood: prospective cohort study. Br Med J 320(7240):967–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ong KK, Phillips DI, Fall C et al. 1999. The insulin gene VNTR, type 2 diabetes and birth weight. Nat Genet 21:262–3.
   Google Scholar
• Ong KK, Preece MA, Emmett PM, Ahmed ML, and Dunger DB. 2002. Size at birth and early childhood growth in relation to maternal smoking, parity and infant breast-feeding: longitudinal birth cohort study and analysis. Pediatr Res 52(6):863–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parazzini F, Davoli E, Rabaiotti M, Restelli S, Stramare L, Dindelli M, La Vecchia C, and Fanelli R. 1996. Validity of self-reported smoking habits in pregnancy: a saliva cotinine analysis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 75:352–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick DL, Cheadle A, Thompson DC, Diehr P, Koepsell T, Kinne S. 1994. The validity of self-reported smoking: a review and meta-analysis. Am J Public Health 84:1086–1093.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Power C and Jefferis, BJ. 2002. Fetal environment and subsequent obesity: a study of maternal smoking. Int J Epidemiol 31(2): 413–419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen F and Johansson M. 1998. The relation of weight, length and ponderal index at birth to body mass index and overweight among 18–year-old males in Sweden. Eur J Epidemiol 14(4):373–80.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ravelli G-P, Stein ZA, and Susser MW. 1976. Obesity in young men after famine exposure in utero and early infancy. N Engl J Med 195:349–353.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson TN. 1999. Reducing children’s television viewing to prevent obesity: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 282(16):1561–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenbloom AL, Joe JR, Young RS, and Winter NE. 1999. Emerging epidemic of type 2 diabetes in youth. Diabetes Care 22:345–354.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satcher D 2001; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity. Rockville, MD. Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Schardein JL. 2000. Chemically Induced Birth Defects, 3rd ed. Marcel Dekker, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Serdula MK, Ivery D, Coates RJ, Freedman DS, Williamson DF, and Byers T. 1993. Do obese children become obese adults? A review of the literature. Preventive Med 22:167–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelgikar GM, Hockaday TDR, and Yajnik CS. 1991. Central rather than generalized obesity is related to hyperglycemia in Asian Indian subjects. Diabetic Medicine 8:712–717.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slikker W, Jr. and Chang LW. 1988. Handbook of Developmental Neurotoxicology, Academic Press. Slikker W., Jr., Scallet AC, Doerge DR, and Ferguson S.A. 2001. Gender-based differences in rats after chronic dietary exposure to genistein, Int J Toxicol 20:1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Sowan NA and Stember ML. 2000. Parental risk factors for infant obesity. MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs 25(5): 234–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Streissguth AP, Darby BL, Barr H, Smith J, and Martin D. 1983. Comparison of drinking and smoking patterns during pregnancy over a six-year interval. Am J Obstet Gynecol 145:716–723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stunkard AJ, Sorensen TI, Hanis C, Teasdale TW, Chakraborty R, and Schull WJ. 1986. An adoption study of human obesity. N Engl J Med 314(4):193–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stunkard AJ, Foch TT, and Hrubec Z. 1986. A twin study of human obesity. JAMA 256(1):51–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stunkard AJ, Harris JR, Pedersen NL, and McClearn GE. 1990. The body-mass index of twins who have been reared apart. N Engl J Med 322(21):1483–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toschke AM, Koletzko B, Slikker W, Jr., Hermann M, and von Kries, R. 2002. Childhood obesity is associated with maternal smoking in pregnancy. Eur J Pediatr 161:445–448.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Meulen J. 2002. Commentary: Maternal smoking during pregnancy and obesity in the offspring. Int J Epidemiol 31:420–421.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vanhala M, Vanhala P, Kumpusalo E, Halonen P, and Takala J. 1998. Relationship between obesity from childhood to adulthood and the metabolic syndrome: population based study. Br Med J 317:319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vickers MH, Breier, BH Cutfield, WS Hofman, PL and Gluckman PD. 2000. Fetal origins of hyperphagia, obesity, and hypertension and postnatal amplification by hypercaloric nutrition. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metabol 279: E83–E87.
   Google Scholar
• Vickers MH, Ikenasio BA, and Breier BH. 2001. IGF-I treatment reduces hyperphagia, obesity, and hypertension in metabolic disorders induced by fetal programming. Endocrinology 142(9):3964–3973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• VikT, Jacobsen G, Vatten L, and Bakketeig LS. 1996. Pre- and post-natal growth in children of women who smoked in pregnancy. Early Hum Devel 45: 245–255.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Von Kries R, Toschke AM, Koletzko B, Sauerwald T, and Slikker W., Jr. 2002. Maternal smoking in pregnancy and childhood obesity. Am J Epidemiol. 156(10):954–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, KM. 1978. Epidemiology of Diabetes and Its Vascular Lesions, Elsevier, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Xu Z, Seidler FJ, Ali SF, Slikker W, and Slotkin TA. 2001. Fetal and adolescent nicotine administration: effects on CNS serotonergic systems. Brain Res 914:166–178.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xu Z, Seidler FJ, Cousins MM, Slikker W Jr. and Slotkin TA. 2002. Adolescent nicotine administration alters serotonin receptors and cell signaling mediated through adenylyl cyclase. Brain Res 951:280–292.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar