Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the Elderly: A Review

References

• American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Ameri- can Psychiatric Association, 1980.
   Google Scholar
• Regier DA, Boyd JH, Burke JD Jr, Rae DS, Myers JK, Kramer M, et al. One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States based on five Epidemiological Catch- ment Area sites. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:977–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blazer D, George LK, Hughes D. The epidemiology of anxiety disorders: an age comparison. In: Salzman C, Lebowitz BD, eds. Anxiety in the elderly: treatment and research. New York: Springer, 1991:17–30.
   Google Scholar
• Flint AJ. Epidemiology and comorbidity of anxiety disorders in the elderly. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:640–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadavoy J. Survivors: a review of the late-life effects of prior psychological trauma. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;5:287–301.
   Google Scholar
• Weinberg SK. The combat neuroses. Am J Sociology 1946; 51:465–78.
   Google Scholar
• Dobbs D, Wilson WP. Observations on persistence of war neurosis. Dis Nerv Syst 1960;21:686–91.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blake DD, Keane TM, Wine PR, Mora C, Taylor KL, Lyons JA. Prevalence of PTSD symptoms in combat veterans seek- ing medical treatment. J Trauma Stress 1990;3:15–27.
   Google Scholar
• Rosen J, Fields RB, Hand AM, Falsettie G, Van Kammen DP. Concurrent posttraumatic stress disorder in psychogeriatric patients. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1989;2:65–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sutker PB, Allain AN Jr, Winstead DK. Psychopathology and psychiatric diagnoses of World War II Pacific theater pris- oner of war survivors and combat veterans. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:240–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kluznik JC, Speed N, Van Valkenburg C, Magraw R. Forty- year follow-up of United States prisoners of war. Am J Psy- chiatry 1986;143:1443–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldstein G, Van Kammen W, Shelly C, Miller DJ, Van Kam- men DP. Survivors of imprisonment in the Pacific theater during World War II. Am J Psychiatry 1987;144:1210–3.
   Google Scholar
• Zeiss RA, Dickman HR. PTSD 40 years later: incidence and person-situation correlates in former POWs. J Clin Psychol 1989;45:80–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engdahl B, Dikel TN, Eberly R, Blank A Jr. Posttraumatic stress disorder in a community group of former prisoners of war: a normative response to severe trauma. Am J Psychia- try 1997;154:1576–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beal AL. Post-traumatic stress disorder in prisoners of war and combat veterans of the Dieppe Raid: a 50-year follow-up. Can J Psychiatry 1995;40:177–84.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutker PB, Winstead DK, Galina ZH, Allain AN. Cognitive deficits and psychopathology among former prisoners of war and combat veterans of the Korean conflict. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:67–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page WF. The health of former prisoners of war: results from the medical examination survey of former POWs of World War II and the Korean conflict. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Kluznik JC, Speed N, Van Valkenburg C, Magraw R. Forty- year follow-up of United States prisoners of war. Am J Psy- chiatry 1986;143:1443–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clipp EC, Elder GH Jr. The aging veteran of World War II: psychiatric and life course insights. In: Ruskin PE, Talbott JA, eds. Aging and posttraumatic stress disorder. Washing- ton, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1996:19–51.
   Google Scholar
• Richmond JS, Beck JC. Posttraumatic stress disorder in a World War II veteran [Letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:1485–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Van Dyke C, Zilberg NJ, McKinnon JA. Posttraumatic stress disorder: a thirty-year delay in a World War II veteran. Am J Psychiatry 1985;142:1070–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilton C. Media triggers of post-traumatic stress disorder 50 years after the Second World War. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;12:862–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macleod AD. The reactivation of post-traumatic stress disor- der in later life. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1994;28:625–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaup BA, Ruskin PE, Nyman G. Significant life events and PTSD in elderly World War II veterans. Am J Geriatr Psychi- atry 1994;2:239–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder GH Jr, Clipp EC. Combat experience and emotional health: impairment and resilience in later life. J Pers 1989; 57:311–41.
   Google Scholar
• Speed N, Engdahl B, Schwartz J, Eberly R. Posttraumatic stress disorder as a consequence of the POW experience. J Nerv Ment Dis 1989;177:147–53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr PP, Friedman MJ, Rosenberg SD. Premilitary MMPI scores as predictors of combat-related PTSD symp- toms. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:479–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• True WR, Rice J, Eisen SA, Heath AC, Goldberg J, Lyons MJ, et al. A twin study of genetic and environmental contribu- tions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:257–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grinker RR, Willerman B, Bradley AD, Fastovsky A. A study of psychological predisposition to the development of opera- tional fatigue, II: In enlisted flying personnel. Am J Ortho- psychiatry 1946;16:207–14.
   Google Scholar
• Bremner JD, Southwick SM, Johnson DR, Yehuda R, Char- ney DS. Childhood physical abuse and combat-related post- traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Am J Psychi- atry 1993;150:235–9.
   Google Scholar
• King DW, King LA, Foy DW, Gudanowski DM. Prewar fac- tors in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: struc- tural equation modeling with a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans. J Consult Clin Psychol 1996; 64:520–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane TM, Scott WO, Chavoya GA, Lamparski DM, Fair- bank JA. Social support in Vietnam veterans with posttrau- matic stress disorder: a comparative analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol 1985;53:95–102.
   Google Scholar
• Solomon Z. Combat stress reaction: the enduring toll of war. New York: Plenum, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Brill NQ, Beebe GW. A follow-up study of war neuroses. Washington, DC: Veterans Administration, 1956.
   Google Scholar
• March JS. The nosology of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Anxiety Disord 1990;4:61–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder GH Jr, Clipp EC. Combat experience, comradeship, and psychological health. In: Wilson JP, Harel Z, Kahana B, eds. Human adaptation to extreme stress: from the Holo- caust to Vietnam. New York: Plenum, 1988:131–56.
   Google Scholar
• Hastings TJ. The Stanford-Terman study revisited: postwar emotional health of World War II veterans. Mil Psychol 1991; 3:201–14.
   Google Scholar
• Elder GH. War mobilization and the life course: a cohort of World War II veterans. Sociol Forum 1987;2:449–72.
   Google Scholar
• Kahana B, Harel Z, Kahana E. Clinical and gerontological issues facing survivors of the Nazi Holocaust. In: Marcus P, Rosenberg A, eds. Healing their wounds: psychotherapy with Holocaust survivors and their families. New York: Praeger, 1989:197–211.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson S, Rapaport J, Durst R, Rapaport M, Rosca P, Metzer S, et al. The late effects of Nazi persecution among elderly Holocaust survivors. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990;82:311–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harel Z, Kahana B, Kahana E. Psychological well-being among Holocaust survivors and immigrants in Israel. J Trauma Stress 1988;1:413–29.
   Google Scholar
• Kuch K, Cox BJ. Symptoms of PTSD in 124 survivors of the Holocaust. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:337–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson S, Rapaport-Bar-Sever M, Rapaport J. The present state of people who survived the Holocaust as children. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;89:242–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Kammen WB, Christiansen C, Van Kammen DP, Reynolds CF III. Sleep and the prisoner-of-war experience— 40 years later. In: Giller EL Jr, ed. Biological assessment and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1990:161–72.
   Google Scholar
• Rosen J, Reynolds CF III, Yeager AL, Houck PR, Hurwitz LF. Sleep disturbances in survivors of the Nazi Holocaust. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:62–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaminer H, Lavie P. Sleep and dreaming in Holocaust survi- vors: dramatic decrease in dream recall in well-adjusted sur- vivors. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179:664–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garland C. The lasting trauma of the concentration camps. BMJ 1993;307:77–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stermer E, Bar H, Levy N. Chronic functional gastrointesti- nal symptoms in Holocaust survivors. Am J Gastroenterol 1991;86:417–22.
   Google Scholar
• Bower H. The concentration camp syndrome. Aust NZ J Psy- chiatry 1994;28:391–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krystal H. Late life effects of trauma: adult catastrophic and infantile type. J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;30:61–82.
   Google Scholar
• Gurian BS, Wexler D, Baker EH. Late-life paranoia: possible association with early trauma and infertility. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1992;7:277–84.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yehuda R, Elkin A, Binder-Brynes K, Kahana B, Southwick SM, Schmeidler J, et al. Dissociation in aging Holocaust sur- vivors. Am J Psychiatry 1996;153:935–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danieli Y. As survivors age: an overview. J Geriatr Psychia- try 1997;30:9–26.
   Google Scholar
• Baider L, Peretz T, Kaplan De-Nour A. Effect of the Holo- caust on coping with cancer. Soc Sci Med 1992;34:11–5.
   Google Scholar
• Solomon Z, Prager E. Elderly Israeli Holocaust survivors during the Persian Gulf War: a study of psychological dis- tress. Am J Psychiatry 1992;149:1707–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eaton WW, Sigal JJ, Weinfeld M. Impairment in Holocaust survivors after 33 years: data from an unbiased community sample. Am J Psychiatry 1982;139:773–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobfoll SE, Spielberger CD, Breznitz S, Figley C, Folkman S, Lepper-Green B, et al. War-related stress: addressing the stress of war and other traumatic events. Am Psychol 1991; 46:848–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyer L, Walker C, Swanson G, Sperr S, Sperr E, Blount J. Validation of PTSD measures for older combat veterans. J Clin Psychol 1992;48:579–88.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aarts PGH, Op den Velde W, Falger PRJ, Hovens JE, De Groen JHM, Van Duijn H. Late onset of posttraumatic stress disorder in aging resistance veterans in the Netherlands. In: Ruskin PE, Talbott JA, eds. Aging and posttraumatic stress disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1996:53–76.
   Google Scholar
• Kahana RJ. The aging survivor of the Holocaust. Discussion: reconciliation between the generations: a last chance. J Geri- atr Psychiatry 1981;14:225–89.
   Google Scholar
• Krystal H. The aging survivor of the Holocaust: integration and self-healing in posttraumatic states. J Geriatr Psychia- try 1981;14:165–89.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roth S. The shadow of the Holocaust. Presented at the 4th conference of the Sigmund Freud Centre of the Hebrew Uni- versity of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, May 1988.
   Google Scholar
• Cath SH. The aging survivor of the Holocaust. Discussion: the effects of the Holocaust on life-cycle experiences: the cre- ation and recreation of families. J Geriatr Psychiatry 1981; 14:155–63.
   Google Scholar
• Fenig S, Levav I. Demoralization and social supports among Holocaust survivors. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179:167–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phifer JF. Psychological distress and somatic symptoms after natural disaster: differential vulnerability among older adults. Psychol Aging 1990;5:412–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phifer JF, Norris FH. Psychological symptoms in older adults following natural disaster: nature, timing, duration, and course. J Gerontol 1989;44:S207–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Norris FH, Phifer JF, Kaniasty K. Individual and community reactions to the Kentucky floods: findings from a longitudinal study of older adults. In: Ursano RJ, McCaughey BG, Fuller-ton CS, eds. Individual and community responses to trauma and disaster: the structure of human chaos. Cambridge, En- gland: Cambridge University Press, 1994:378–400.
   Google Scholar
• Resnick HS, Yehuda R, Pitman RK, Foy DW. Effect of previ- ous trauma on acute plasma cortisol level following rape. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1675–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergherr T, Bremner JD, Southwick SM, Charney DS, Krys- tal JH. Neurobiological perspectives on trauma and aging. J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;30:27–59.
   Google Scholar
• Yehuda R, Kahana B, Binder-Brynes K, Southwick SM, Ma- son JW, Giller EL. Low urinary cortisol excretion in Holo- caust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:982–6.
   Google Scholar
• Yehuda R, Kahana B, Southwick SM, Giller EL Jr. De- pressive features in Holocaust survivors with post-traumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 1994;7:699–704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Eekelen JAM, Kiss JZ, Westphal HM, De Kloet ER. Im- munocytochemical study on the intracellular localization of the type 2 glucocorticoid receptor in the rat brain. Brain Res 1987;436:120–8.
   Google Scholar
• Sapolsky RM. Stress, the aging brain, and the mechanisms of neuron death. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Lupien S, Lecours AR, Lussier I, Schwartz G, Nair NPV, Meaney MJ. Basal cortisol levels and cognitive deficits in hu- man aging. J Neurosci 1994;14:2893–903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bremner JD, Randall P, Scott TM, Bronen RA, Seibyl JP, Southwick SM, et al. MRI-based measurement of hippocam- pal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:973–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipton MI, Schaffer WR. Post-traumatic stress disorder in the older veteran. Mil Med 1986;151:522–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Druley KA, Pashko S. Posttraumatic stress disorder in World War II and Korean combat veterans with alcohol dependency. Recent Dev Alcohol 1988;6:89–101.
   Google Scholar
• Fields R. Severe stress and the elderly: are older adults at increased risk for posttraumatic stress disorder? In: Ruskin PE, Talbott JA, eds. Aging and posttraumatic stress disorder. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1996:79–100.
   Google Scholar
• Shore JH, Tatum EL, Vollmer WM. Psychiatric reactions to disaster: the Mount St. Helens experience. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143:590–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ollendick DG, Hoffmann M. Assessment of psychological re- actions in disaster victims. J Community Psychol 1982;10:157–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller JA, Turner JG, Kimball E. Big Thompson flood vic- tims. Fam Rel 1981;30:111–16.
   Google Scholar
• Bell BD. Disaster impact and response: overcoming the thou- sand natural shocks. Gerontologist 1978;18:531–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gleser GC, Green BL, Winget C. Prolonged psychosocial ef- fects of disaster: a study of Buffalo Creek. New York: Aca- demic, 1981.
   Google Scholar
• Green BL, Lindy JD, Grace MC, Gleser GC, Leonard AC, Korol M, et al. Buffalo Creek survivors in the second decade: stability of stress symptoms. Am J Orthopsychiatry 1990; 60:43–54.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bromet EJ, Schulberg HC. The Three Mile Island disaster: a search for high-risk groups. In: Shore JH, ed. Disaster stress studies: new methods and findings. Washington, DC: Ameri- can Psychiatric Press, 1986:1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs MS. Factors in the victim that mediate between disas- ter and psychopathology: a review. J Trauma Stress 1989; 2:489–514.
   Google Scholar
• Bolin R, Klenow DJ. Older people in disaster: a comparison of black and white victims. Int J Aging Hum Dev 1988;26:29–43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers JK, Weissman MM, Tischler GL, Holzer CE III, Leaf PJ, Orvaschel H, et al. Six-month prevalence of psychiatric disorders in three communities 1980 to 1982. Arch Gen Psy- chiatry 1984;41:959–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massey BA. Victims or survivors: a three-part approach to working with older adults in disaster. J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997;30:193–202.
   Google Scholar
• Schulte JJ, Bienefeld D. Other neurotic disorders. In: Cope- land JRM, Abou-Saleh MT, Blazer DG, eds. Principles and practice of geriatric psychiatry. West Sussex, England: Wiley, 1994:761–7.
   Google Scholar
• Snell FI, Padin-Rivera E. Group treatment for older veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv 1997;35:10–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Solomon SD, Gerrity ET, Muff AM. Efficacy of treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: an empirical review. JAMA 1992;268:633–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendin H, Haas AP, Singer P, Gold F, Trigos GG. The influ- ence of precombat personality on posttraumatic stress disor- der. Compr Psychiatry 1983;24:530–4.
   Google Scholar
• McEwan EG. The whole grandfather: an intergenerational approach to family therapy. In: Sadavoy J, Leszcz M, eds. Treating the elderly with psychotherapy: the scope for change in later life. Madison, Connecticut: International Universities Press, 1987:295–324.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas R, Gafner G. PTSD in an elderly male: treatment with eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR). Clin Gerontol 1993;14:57–9.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson J, Kudler H, Smith R, Mahorney SL, Lipper S, Hammett E, et al. Treatment of posttraumatic stress disor- der with amitriptyline and placebo. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1990;47:259–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank JB, Kosten TR, Giller EL Jr, Dan E. A randomized clinical trial of phenelzine and imipramine for posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:1289–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Kolk BA, Dreyfuss D, Michaels M, Shera D, Berko- witz R, Fisler R, et al. Fluoxetine in posttraumatic stress dis- order. J Clin Psychiatry 1994;55:517–22.
   Google Scholar
• Sutherland SM, Davidson JR. Pharmacotherapy for post- traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1994; 17:409–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risse SC, Whitters A, Burke J, Chen S, Scurfield RM, Raskind MA. Severe withdrawal symptoms after discontinu- ation of alprazolam in eight patients with combat-induced posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:206–9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krystal JH, Kosten TR, Southwick S, Mason JW, Perry BD, Giller EL. Neurobiological aspects of PTSD: review of clinical and preclinical studies. Behav Ther 1989;20:177–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson JR, Kudler HS, Saunders WB, Erickson L, Smith RD, Stein RM, et al. Predicting response to amitriptyline in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1024–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar