Pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus and potential biomarkers

References

• Valesini G, Alessandri C, Celestino D, Conti F. Anti-endothelial antibodies and neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2006;1069:118–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The American College of Rheumatology nomenclature and case definitions for neuropsychiatric lupus syndromes. Arthritis Rheum 1999;42(4):599–608.
   Google Scholar
• Hanly JG, McCurdy G, Fougere L, Douglas JA, Thompson K. Neuropsychiatric events in systemic lupus erythematosus: attribution and clinical significance. J Rheumatol. 2004;31(11): 2156–62.
   Google Scholar
• Bresnihan B, Hohmeister R, Cutting J, Travers RL, Waldburger M, Black C, et al. The neuropsychiatric disorder in systemic lupus erythematosus: evidence for both vascular and immune mechanisms. Ann Rheum Dis. 1979;38(4):301–6.
   Google Scholar
• Tatsukawa H, Ishii K, Haranaka M, Kumagi M, Hino I, Yoshimatsu H. Evaluation of average amount of cerebral blood flow measured by brain perfusion index in patients with neu-ropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2005;14(6): 445–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy JG, Walsh NM, Sangalang V. Brain pathology in sys-temic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 1992;19(5):732–41.
   Google Scholar
• Devinsky 0, Petito CK, Alonso DR. Clinical and neuropatho-logical findings in systemic lupus erythematosus: the role of vascufitis, heart emboli, and thrombotic thrombocytopenic pur-pura. Ann Neurol. 1988;23(4):380–4.
   Google Scholar
• Greenwood DL, Gitlits VM, Alderuccio F, Sentry JW, Toh BH. Autoantibodies in neuropsychiatric lupus. Autoimmunity. 2002; 35(2):79–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaccagni H, Fried J, Cornell J, Padilla P, Brey RL. Soluble adhesion molecule levels, neuropsychiatric lupus and lupus-related damage. Front Biosci. 2004;9:1654–9.
   Google Scholar
• Asherson RA, Khamashta MA, Gil A, Vazquez JJ, Chan 0, Baguley E, et al. Cerebrovascular disease and antiphospholipid antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus, lupus-like disease, and the primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Am J Med. 1989; 86(4):391–9.
   Google Scholar
• Trysberg E, Tarkowski A. Cerebral inflammation and degener-ation in systemic lupus erythematosus. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2004;16(5):527–33.
   Google Scholar
• Gomez-Pacheco L, Villa AR, Drenkard C, Cabiedes J, Cabral AR, Alarcon-Segovia D. Serum anti-beta2-glycoprotein-I and anticardiolipin antibodies during thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Am J Med. 1999;106(4):417–23.
   Google Scholar
• Meroni PL, Tincani A, Sepp N, Raschi E, Testoni C, Corsini E, et al. Endothelium and the brain in CNS lupus. Lupus. 2003; 12(12):919–28.
   Google Scholar
• Steens SC, Bosma GP, Steup-Beekman GM, le Cessie S, Huizinga TW, van Buchem MA. Association between micro-scopic brain damage as indicated by magnetization transfer imaging and anticardiolipin antibodies in neuropsychiatric lupus. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006;8(2):R38.
   Google Scholar
• Sanna G, Bertolaccini ML, Cuadrado MJ, Laing H, Khamashta MA, Mathieu A, et al. Neuropsychiatric manifestations in sys-temic lupus erythematosus: prevalence and association with antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol. 2003;30(5):985–92.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hardy JG, Hong C, Smith S, Fisk JD. A prospective analysis of cognitive function and anticardiolipin antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42(4):728–34.
   Google Scholar
• Menon S, Jameson-Shortall E, Newman SP, Hall-Craggs MR, Chinn R, Isenberg DA. A longitudinal study of anticardiolipin antibody levels and cognitive functioning in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1999;42(4):735–41.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Conti F, Alessandri C, Bompane D, Bombardieri M, Spinelli FR, Rusconi AC, et al. Autoantibody profile in systemic lupus erythematosus with psychiatric manifestations: a role for anti-endothelial-cell antibodies. Arthritis Res Ther. 2004;6(4): R366–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elkon KB, Parnassa AP, Foster CL. Lupus autoantibodies target ribosomal P proteins. J Exp Med. 1985;162(2):459–71.
   Google Scholar
• Francoeur AM, Peebles CL, Heckman KJ, Lee JC, Tan EM. Identification of ribosomal protein autoantigens. J Immunol. 1985;135(4):2378–84.
   Google Scholar
• Bonfa E, Golombek SJ, Kaufman LD, Skelly S, Weissbach H, Brot N, et al. Association between lupus psychosis and anti- ribosomal P protein antibodies. N Engl J Med. 1987;317(5): 265–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West SG, Emlen W, Wener MH, Kotzin BL. Neuropsychiatric lupus erythematosus: a 10-year prospective study on the value of diagnostic tests. Am J Med. 1995;99(2):153–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe T, Sato T, Uchiumi T, Arakawa M. Neuropsychiatric manifestations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: diagnostic and predictive value of longitudinal examination of anti-ribosomal P antibody. Lupus. 1996;5(3):178–83.
   Google Scholar
• Arnett FC, Reveille JD, Moutsopoulos HM, Georgescu L, Elkon KB. Ribosomal P autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythema-tosus. Frequencies in different ethnic groups and clinical and immunogenetic associations. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39(11): 1833–9.
   Google Scholar
• Tzioufas AG, Tzortzakis NG, Panou-Pomonis E, Bold KA, Sakarellos-Daitsiotis M, Sakarellos C, et al. The clinical rele-vance of antibodies to ribosomal-P common epitope in two targeted systemic lupus erythematosus populations: a large cohort of consecutive patients and patients with active central nervous system disease. Ann Rheum Dis. 2000;59(2):99–104.
   Google Scholar
• Nojima Y, Minota S, Yamada A, Takaku F, Aotsuka S, Yokohari R. Correlation of antibodies to ribosomal P protein with psychosis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 1992;51(9):1053–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isshi K, Hirohata S. Differential roles of the anti-ribosomal P antibody and antineuronal antibody in the pathogenesis of cen-tral nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythema-tosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41(10):1819–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isshi K, Hirohata S. Association of anti-ribosomal P protein antibodies with neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39(9):1483–90.
   Google Scholar
• Press J, Palayew K, Laxer RM, Elkon K, Eddy A, Rakoff D, et al. Antiribosomal P antibodies in pediatric patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and psychosis. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39(4): 671–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Massardo L, Burgos P, Martinez ME, Perez R, Calvo M, Banos J, et al. Antiribosomal P protein antibodies in Chilean SLE patients: no association with renal disease. Lupus. 2002;11(6): 379–83.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yoshio T, Hirata D, Onda K, Nara H, Minota S. Antiriboso-mal P protein antibodies in cerebrospinal fluid are associated with neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheu-matol. 2005;32(1):34–9.
   Google Scholar
• Hirohata S, Arinuma Y, Takayama M, Yoshio T. Association of cerebrospinal fluid anti-ribosomal p protein antibodies with diffuse psychiatric/neuropsychological syndromes in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther. 2007;9(3):R44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneebaum AB, Singleton JD, West SG, Blodgett JK, Allen LG, Cheronis JC, et al. Association of psychiatric manifesta-tions with antibodies to ribosomal P proteins in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med. 1991;90(1):54–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gerli R, Caponi L, Tincani A, Scorza R, Sabbadini MG, Daniefi MG, et al. Clinical and serological associations of ribosomal P autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus: prospective evaluation in a large cohort of Italian patients. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2002;41(12):1357–66.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jonsen A, Bengtsson AA, Nived 0, Ryberg B, Truedsson L, Ronnblom L, et al. The heterogeneity of neuropsychiatric sys-temic lupus erythematosus is reflected in lack of association with cerebrospinal fluid cytokine profiles. Lupus. 2003;12(11): 846–50.
   Google Scholar
• Teh LS, Bedwell AE, Isenberg DA, Gordon C, Emery P, Charles PJ, et al. Antibodies to protein P in systemic lupus erythema-tosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 1992;51(4):489–94.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• van Dam A, Nossent H, de Jong J, Meilof J, ter Borg EJ, Swaak T, et al. Diagnostic value of antibodies against ribosomal Springer phosphoproteins. A cross sectional and longitudinal study. J Rheumatol. 1991;18(7):1026–34.
   Google Scholar
• Sato T, Uchiumi T, Ozawa T, Kikuchi M, Nakano M, Kominami R, et al. Autoantibodies against ribosomal proteins found with high frequency in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus with active disease. J Rheumatol. 1991;18(11):1681–4.
   Google Scholar
• Derksen RH, van Dam AP, Gmelig Meyling FH, Bijlsma JW, Smeenk RJ. A prospective study on antiribosomal P proteins in two cases of familial lupus and recurrent psychosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 1990;49(10):779–82.
   Google Scholar
• Karassa FB, Afeltra A, Ambrozic A, Chang DM, De Keyser F, Doria A, et al. Accuracy of anti-ribosomal P protein antibody testing for the diagnosis of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: an international meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(1):312–24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bluestein HG, Williams GW, Steinberg AD. Cerebrospinal fluid antibodies to neuronal cells: association with neuropsychiatric manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med. 1981;70(2):240–6.
   Google Scholar
• Sanna G, Piga M, Tenyberry JW, Peltz MT, Giagheddu S, Satta L, et al. Central nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: cerebral imaging and serological profile in patients with and without overt neuropsychiatric manifestations. Lupus. 2000;9(8):573–83.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trysberg E, Nylen K, Rosengren LE, Tarkowski A. Neuronal and astrocytic damage in systemic lupus erythematosus patients with central nervous system involvement. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48(10):2881–7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alessandri C, Conti F, Valesini G. Role of anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein antibodies in the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus should be clarified: comment on the article by Trysberg et al. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(5):1698–9. author reply 1699.
   Google Scholar
• Yoshio T, Masuyama J, Kano S. Antiribosomal PO protein antibodies react with the surface of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. J Rheumatol. 1996;23(7):1311–2.
   Google Scholar
• Yoshio T, Masuyama J, Ikeda M, Tamai K, Hachiya T, Emori T, et al. Quantification of antiribosomal PO protein antibodies by ELISA with recombinant PO fusion protein and their association with central nervous system disease in systemic lupus erythe-matosus. J Rheumatol. 1995;22(9):1681–7.
   Google Scholar
• Song J, Park YB, Lee WK, Lee KH, Lee SK. Clinical associa-tions of anti-endothelial cell antibodies in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatol Int. 2000;20(1):1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Morris RG, Anderson E, Lynch GS, Baudry M. Selective impairment of learning and blockade of long-term potentiation by an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, AP5. Nature. 1986;319(6056):774–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipton SA, Rosenberg PA. Excitatory amino acids as a final common pathway for neurologic disorders. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(9):613–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skeny TM, Genever PG. Glutamate signalling in non-neuronal tissues. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2001;22(4):174–81.
   Google Scholar
• Zipfel GJ, Lee JM, Choi DW. Reducing calcium overload in the ischemic brain. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(20):1543–4.
   Google Scholar
• Cavalheiro EA, Olney JW. Glutamate antagonists: deadly liaisons with cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(11): 5947–8.
   Google Scholar
• Choi DW, Rothman SM. The role of glutamate neurotoxicity in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1990;13: 171–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubinsky JM, Rothman SM. Intracellular calcium concentra-tions during "chemical hypoxia" and excitotoxic neuronal injury. J Neurosci. 1991;11(8):2545–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotzin BL, Kozora E. Anti-DNA meets NMDA in neuropsy-chiatric lupus. Nat Med. 2001;7(11):1175–6.
   Google Scholar
• DeGiorgio LA, Konstantinov KN, Lee SC, Hardin JA, Volpe BT, Diamond B. A subset of lupus anti-DNA antibodies cross-reacts with the NR2 glutamate receptor in systemic lupus ery-thematosus. Nat Med. 2001;7(11):1189–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozawa S, Kamiya H, Tsuzuki K. Glutamate receptors in the mammalian central nervous system. Prog Neurobiol. 1998;54(5): 581–618.
   Google Scholar
• Kowal C, Degiorgio LA, Lee JY, Edgar MA, Huerta PT, Volpe BT, et al. Human lupus autoantibodies against NMDA receptors mediate cognitive impairment. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006;103(52):19854–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arinuma Y, Yanagida T, Hirohata S. Association of cerebro-spinal fluid anti-NR2 glutamate receptor antibodies with diffuse neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2008;58(4):1130–5.
   Google Scholar
• Omdal R, Brokstad K, Waterloo K, Koldingsnes W, Jonsson R, Mellgren SI. Neuropsychiatric disturbances in SLE are associ-ated with antibodies against NMDA receptors. Eur J Neurol. 2005;12(5):392–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kudoh A, Takahira Y, Katagai H, Takazawa T. Small-dose ketamine improves the postoperative state of depressed patients. Anesth Analg. 2002;95(1):114–8. table of contents.
   Google Scholar
• Berman RM, Cappiello A, Anand A, Oren DA, Heninger GR, Chamey DS, et al. Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;47(4):351–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lapteva L, Nowak M, Yarboro CH, Takada K, Roebuck-Spen-cer T, Weickert T, et al. Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies, cognitive dysfunction, and depression in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(8):2505–14.
   Google Scholar
• Husebye ES, Sthoeger ZM, Dayan M, Zinger H, Elbirt D, Levite M, et al. Autoantibodies to a NR2A peptide of the glutamate/ NMDA receptor in sera of patients with systemic lupus ery-thematosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64(8):1210–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goetzl EJ, Banda MJ, Leppert D. Matrix metalloproteinases in immunity. J Immunol. 1996;156(1):1–4.
   Google Scholar
• Ram M, Sherer Y, Shoenfeld Y. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 and autoimmune diseases. J Clin Immunol. 2006;26(4):299–307.
   Google Scholar
• Faber-Elmann A, Sthoeger Z, Tcherniack A, Dayan M, Mozes E. Activity of matrix metalloproteinase-9 is elevated in sera of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Exp Immunol. 2002;127(2):393–8.
   Google Scholar
• Ainiala H, Hietahatju A, Dastidar P, Loukkola J, Lehtimaki T, Peltola J, et al. Increased serum matrix metalloproteinase 9 levels in systemic lupus erythematosus patients with neuropsy-chiatric manifestations and brain magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(3):858–65.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trysberg E, Blennow K, Zachrisson 0, Tarkowski A. Intrathecal levels of matrix metalloproteinases in systemic lupus erythe-matosus with central nervous system engagement. Arthritis Res 'Ther. 2004;6(6):R551–6.
   Google Scholar
• Williams RC Jr., Sugiura K, Tan EM. Antibodies to microtu-bule-associated protein 2 in patients with neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(4): 1239–47.
   Google Scholar
• Lefranc D, Launay D, Dubucquoi S, de Seze J, Dussart P, Vermersch M, et al. Characterization of discriminant human brain antigenic targets in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus ery-thematosus using an immunoproteomic approach. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56(10):3420–32.
   Google Scholar
• Jara LJ, Irigoyen L, Ortiz MJ, Zazueta B, Bravo G, Espinoza LR. Prolactin and interleukin-6 in neuropsychiatric lupus ery-thematosus. Clin Rheumatol. 1998;17(2):110–4.
   Google Scholar
• Hirohata S, Miyamoto T. Elevated levels of interleukin-6 in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with systemic lupus erythe-matosus and central nervous system involvement. Arthritis Rheum. 1990;33(5):644–9.
   Google Scholar
• Hirohata S, Hayakawa K. Enhanced interleukin-6 messenger RNA expression by neuronal cells in a patient with neuropsy-chiatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1999; 42(12):2729–30.
   Google Scholar
• Winfield JB, Shaw M, Silverman LM, Eisenberg RA, Wilson HA 3rd, Koffler D. Intrathecal IgG synthesis and blood-brain barrier impairment in patients with systemic lupus erythemato-sus and central nervous system dysfunction. Am J Med. 1983;74(5):837–44.
   Google Scholar
• Alcocer-Varela J, Aleman-Hoey D, Alarcon-Segovia D. Inter-leukin-1 and interleukin-6 activities are increased in the cere-brospinal fluid of patients with CNS lupus erythematosus and correlate with local late T-cell activation markers. Lupus. 1992; 1(2):111–7.
   Google Scholar
• Tsai CY, Wu TH, Tsai ST, Chen KH, Thajeb P, Lin WM, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid interleukin-6, prostaglandin E2 and autoan-tibodies in patients with neuropsychiatric systemic lupus ery-thematosus and central nervous system infections. Scand J Rheumatol. 1994;23(2):57–63.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trysberg E, Carlsten H, Tarkowski A. Intrathecal cytokines in systemic lupus erythematosus with central nervous system involvement. Lupus. 2000;9(7):498–503.
   Google Scholar
• Dellalibera-Joviliano R, Dos Reis ML, Cunha Fde Q, Donadi EA. Kinins and cytokines in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neuropsychiatric lupus. J Rheumatol. 2003;30(3): 485–92.
   Google Scholar
• Fragoso-Loyo H, Richaud-Patin Y, Orozco-Narvaez A, Davila-Maldonado L, Atisha-Fregoso Y, Llorente L, et al. Interleukin-6 and chemokines in the neuropsychiatric manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56(4):1242–50.
   Google Scholar
• Shiozawa S, Kuroki Y, Kim M, Hirohata S, Ogino T. Interferon-alpha in lupus psychosis. Arthritis Rheum. 1992;35(4):417–22.
   Google Scholar
• Svenungsson E, Andersson M, Brundin L, van Vollenhoven R, Khademi M, Tarkowski A, et al. Increased levels of proin-flammatory cytokines and nitric oxide metabolites in neuro-psychiatric lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 2001;60(4): 372–9.
   Google Scholar
• Gilad R, Lampl Y, Eshel Y, Barak V, Sarova-Pinhas I. Cere-brospinal fluid soluble interleukin-2 receptor in cerebral lupus. Br J Rheumatol. 1997;36(2):190–3.
   Google Scholar
• Santer DM, Yoshio T, Minota S, Moller T, Elkon KB. Potent induction of IFN-alpha and chemokines by autoantibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with neuropsychiatric lupus. J Immunol. 2009;182(2):1192–201.
   Google Scholar
• Hardy JG, Harrison MJ. Management of neuropsychiatric lupus. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2005;19(5):799–821.
   Google Scholar
• Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ, Mujic F, Taub NA, Hunt BJ, Hughes GR. The management of thrombosis in the antipho-spholipid-antibody syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(15): 993–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertsias G, Ioannidis JP, Boletis J, Bombardieri S, Cervera R, Dostal C, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus. Report of a Task Force of the EULAR Standing Committee for International Clinical Studies Including Therapeutics. Ann Rheum Dis. 2008;67(2):195–205.
   Google Scholar
• Sanna G, Bertolaccini ML, Khamashta MA. Neuropsychiatric involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: current thera-peutic approach. Curr Pharm Des. 2008;14(13):1261–9.
   Google Scholar
• Valesini G, Priori R, Francia A, Balestrieri G, Tincani A, Airo P, et al. Central nervous system involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: a new therapeutic approach with intrathecal dexamethasone and methotrexate. Springer Semin Immunopa-thol. 1994;16(2-3):313–21.
   Google Scholar
• Milstone AM, Meyers K, Elia J. Treatment of acute neuropsy-chiatric lupus with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG): a case report and review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol. 2005;24(4): 394–7.
   Google Scholar
• Tomer Y, Shoenfeld Y. Successful treatment of psychosis sec-ondary to SLE with high dose intravenous immunoglobulin. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1992;10(4):391–3.
   Google Scholar
• Sherer Y, Levy Y, Langevitz P, Lorber M, Fabrizzi F, Shoenfeld Y. Successful treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus cere-britis with intravenous immunoglobulin. Clin Rheumatol. 1999;18(2):170–3.
   Google Scholar
• Traynor AE, Barr WG, Rosa RM, Rodriguez J, Oyama Y, Baker S, et al. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for severe and refractory lupus. Analysis after five years and fifteen patients. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46(11):2917–23.
   Google Scholar
• Lehnhardt FG, Scheid C, Holtik U, Burghaus L, Neveling M, Impekoven P, et al. Autologous blood stem cell transplantation in refractory systemic lupus erythematodes with recurrent lon-gitudinal myelitis and cerebral infarction. Lupus. 2006;15(4): 240–3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorman C, Leandro M, Isenberg D. Does B cell depletion have a role to play in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus? Lupus. 2004;13(5):312–6.
   Google Scholar
• Looney RJ, Anolik JH, Campbell D, Felgar RE, Young F, Arend LJ, et al. B cell depletion as a novel treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus: a phase I/II dose-escalation trial of rituximab. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(8):2580–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anolik JH, Barnard J, Cappione A, Pugh-Bernard AE, Felgar RE, Looney RJ, et al. Rituximab improves peripheral B cell abnormalities in human systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(11):3580–90.
   Google Scholar
• Tokunaga M, Fujii K, Saito K, Nakayamada S, Tsujimura S, Nawata M, et al. Down-regulation of CD40 and CD80 on B cells in patients with life-threatening systemic lupus erythema-tosus after successful treatment with rituximab. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2005;44(2):176–82.
   Google Scholar
• Leandro MJ, Edwards JC, Cambridge G, Ehrenstein MR, Isen-berg DA. An open study of B lymphocyte depletion in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46(10):2673–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuwelt CM, Young RG, McGhee RA, Freeman J. Role of rituximab in the treatment of severe central nervous system neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus as monotherapy or in combination therapy. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64(Suppl III): 57.
   Google Scholar
• Tokunaga M, Saito K, Kawabata D, Imura Y, Fujii T, Nakayamada S, et al. Efficacy of rituximab (anti-CD20) for refractory systemic lupus erythematosus involving the central nervous system. Ann Rheum Dis. 2007;66(4):470–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirohata S, Kanai Y, Mitsuo A, Tokano Y, Hara M, Kubota T, et al. Efficacy of cerebrospinal fluid IL-6 testing for diagnosis of lupus psychosis. Ann Rheum Dis. 2006;65(Suppl II):197.
   Google Scholar
• Hillen N, Stevanovic S. Contribution of mass spectrometry-based proteomics to immunology. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2006;3(6):653–64.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofstadler SA, Severs JC, Smith RD, Swanek FD, Ewing AG. Analysis of single cells with capillary electrophoresis electro-spray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 1996;10(8): 919–22.
   Google Scholar
• Rood MJ, Keijsers V, van der Linden MW, Tong TQ, Borggreve SE, Verweij CL, et al. Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus ery-thematosus is associated with imbalance in interleukin 10 pro-moter haplotypes. Ann Rheum Dis. 1999;58(2):85–9.
   Google Scholar