The Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertensive Crises

References

• . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2005 with Chartbook on Trends in the Health of Americans with Special Feature on Drugs. http://www.cdc.gov/bloodpressure/facts.htm. Updated February 9, 2007. Accessed July 8, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• . Hajjar I, Kotchen TA. Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the United States, 1988–2000. JAMA. 2003;290(2):199–206
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rosamond W, Flegal K, Friday G, ; American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2007 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2007;115(5):e69–e171
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, ; US Department of Health and Human Services. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure, JNC 7 (Complete Report). Bethesda, MD: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Health Information Center; 2004
   Google Scholar
• . Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, ; Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension. 2003;42(6):1206–1252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . McRae RP Jr, Liebson PR. Hypertensive crisis. Med Clin North Am. 1986;70(4):749–767
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Vidt DG. Current concepts in treatment of hypertensive emergencies. Am Heart J. 1986;111(1):220–225
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Lip GY, Beevers M, Potter JF, Beevers DG. Malignant hypertension in the elderly. QJM. 1995;88(9):641–647
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Smith CB, Flower LW, Reinhardt CE. Control of hypertensive emergencies. Postgrad Med. 1991;89(5):111–116, 119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Kaplan NM. Treatment of hypertensive emergencies and urgencies. Heart Dis Stroke. 1992;1(6):373–378
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Bennett NM, Shea S. Hypertensive emergency: case criteria, sociodemographic profile, and previous care of 100 cases. Am J Public Health. 1988;78(6):636–640
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Varon J, Marik PE. Clinical review: the management of hypertensive crises. Crit Care. 2003;7(5):374–384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Calhoun DA, Oparil S. Treatment of hypertensive crisis. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(17):1177–1183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Bertel O, Marx BE, Conen D. Effects of antihypertensive treatment on cerebral perfusion. Am J Med. 1987;82(3B):29–36
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Bannan LT, Beevers DG, Wright N. ABC of blood pressure reduction. Emergency reduction, hypertension in pregnancy, and hypertension in the elderly. Br Med J. 1980;281(6248):1120–1122
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Strandgaard S, Olesen J, Skinhoj E, Lassen NA. Autoregulation of brain circulation in severe arterial hypertension. Br Med J. 1973;1(5852): 507–510
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Varon J, Marik PE. The diagnosis and management of hypertensive crises. Chest. 2000;118(1):214–227
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Greene CS, Gretler DD, Cervenka K, McCoy CE, Brown FD, Murphy MB. Cerebral blood flow during the acute therapy of severe hypertension with oral clonidine. Am J Emerg Med. 1990;8(4):293–296
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Houston MC. The comparative effects of clonidine hydrochloride and nifedipine in the treatment of hypertensive crises. Am Heart J. 1988;115(1 pt 1):152–159
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Marik PE, Varon J. Hypertensive crises: challenges and management. Chest. 2007;131(6):1949–1962
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rey E, LeLorier J, Burgess E, Lange IR, Leduc L. Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 3. Pharmacologic treatment of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ. 1997;157(9):1245–1254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Grossman E, Messerli FH, Grodzicki T, Kowey P. Should a moratorium be placed on sublingual nifedipine capsules given for hypertensive emergencies and pseudoemergencies? JAMA. 1996;276(16):1328–1331
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Levy JH. Treatment of perioperative hypertension. Anesthesiol Clin North Am. 1999;17(3):567–580
   Google Scholar
• . Estrera AL, Miller CC 3rd, Safi HJ, . Outcomes of medical management of acute type B aortic dissection. Circulation. 2006;114( 1 suppl):I384–I389
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Khan IA, Nair CK. Clinical, diagnostic, and management perspectives of aortic dissection. Chest. 2002;122(1):311–328
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Khot UN, Novaro GM, Popović ZB, . Nitroprusside in critically ill patients with left ventricular dysfunction and aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(18):1756–1763
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . DiPette DJ, Ferraro JC, Evans RR, Martin M. Enalaprilat, an intravenous angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, in hypertensive crises. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1985;38(2):199–204
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Hirschl MM, Binder M, Bur A, . Impact of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system on blood pressure response to intravenous enalaprilat in patients with hypertensive crises. J Hum Hypertens. 1997;11(3):177–183
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Podbregar M, Voga G, Horvat M, . Bolus versus continuous low dose of enalaprilat in congestive heart failure with acute refractory decompensation. Cardiology. 1999;91(1):41–49
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Rodby RA, Firth LM, Lewis EJ. An economic analysis of captopril in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy. The Collaborative Study Group. Diabetes Care. 1996;19(10):1051–1061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Mathiesen ER, Hommel E, Giese J, Parving HH. Efficacy of captopril in postponing nephropathy in normotensive insulin dependent diabetic patients with microalbuminuria. BMJ. 1991;303(6794):81–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Vasotec® I.V. [package insert]. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co; 2000. http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2001/19309s23lbl.pdf. Updated December 2000. Accessed July 16, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• . Varon J. Treatment of acute severe hypertension: current and newer agents. Drugs. 2008;68(3):283–297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Varon J, Marik PE. Perioperative hypertension management. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2008;4(3):615–627
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Lund-Johansen P. Pharmacology of combined alpha-beta-blockade. II. Haemodynamic effects of labetalol. Drugs. 1984;28( suppl 2):35–50
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Goldberg ME, Clark S, Joseph J, . Nicardipine versus placebo for the treatment of postoperative hypertension. Am Heart J. 1990;119(2 pt 2):446–450
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Kanto J, Allonen H, Kleimola T, Mäntylä R. Pharmacokinetics of labetalol in healthy volunteers. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1981; 19(1):41–44
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Labetalol Hydrochloride Injection USP® [package insert]. Bedford, OH: Bedford Laboratories; 2000. http://www.bedfordlabs.com/products/inserts/LBTL-P02.pdf. Updated June 2000. Accessed July 16, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• . Pearce CJ, Wallin JD. Labetalol and other agents that block both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors. Cleve Clin J Med. 1994;61(1):59–69
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Marx PG, Reid DS. Labetalol infusion in acute myocardial infarction with systemic hypertension. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1979;8( suppl 2): 233S–238S
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Olsen KS, Svendsen LB, Larsen FS, Paulson OB. Effect of labetalol on cerebral blood flow, oxygen metabolism and autoregulation in healthy humans. Br J Anaesth. 1995;75(1):51–54
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Wallin JD. Adrenoreceptors and renal function. J Clin Hypertens. 1985;1(2):171–178
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Nordlander M, Bjorkman JA, Regard HCG, . Pharmacokinetics and hemodynamic effects of an ultrashort-acting calcium antagonist [Abstract]. Br J Anaesth. 1996;76( suppl):A24
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Rodríguez G, Varon J. Clevidipine. a unique agent for the critical care practitioner. Crit Care Shock. 2006;9(2):37–41
   Google Scholar
• . Bailey JM, Lu W, Levy JH, . Clevidipine in adult cardiac surgical patients: a dose-finding study. Anesthesiology. 2002;96(5): 1086–1094
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Ericsson H, Fakt C, Jolin-Mellgård A, . Clinical and pharmacokinetic results with a new ultrashort-acting calcium antagonist, clevidipine, following gradually increasing intravenous doses to healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1999;47(5):531–538
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Garcia JY Jr, Vidt DG. Current management of hypertensive emergencies. Drugs. 1987;34(2):263–278
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Segawa D, Sjöquist PO, Wang QD, Gonon A, Nordlander M, Rydén L. Calcium antagonist protects the myocardium from reperfusion injury by interfering with mechanisms directly related to reperfusion: an experimental study with the ultrashort-acting calcium antagonist clevidipine. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2000;36(3):338–343
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Segawa D, Sjöquist PO, Wang QD, Gonon A, Rydén L. Time-dependent cardioprotection with calcium antagonism and experimental studies with clevidipine in ischemic-reperfused pig hearts: part II. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2002;40(3):339–345
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Stephens CT, Jandhyala BS. Effects of fenoldopam, a dopamine D-1 agonist, and clevidipine, a calcium channel antagonist, in acute renal failure in anesthetized rats. Clin Exp Hypertens. 2002;24(4):301–313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Gray RJ. Managing critically ill patients with esmolol. An ultra short-acting beta-adrenergic blocker. Chest. 1988;93(2):398–403
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Lowenthal DT, Porter RS, Saris SD, Bies CM, Slegowski MB, Staudacher A. Clinical pharmacology, pharmacodynamics and interactions with esmolol. Am J Cardiol. 1985;56(11):14F–18F
   Google Scholar
• . Reynolds RD, Gorczynski RJ, Quon CY. Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of esmolol. J Clin Pharmacol. 1986;26( suppl A):A3–A14
   Google Scholar
• . Esmolol Hydrochloride Injection® [prescribing information]. Bedford, OH: Bedford Laboratories; 2004. http://www.bedfordlabs.com/products/inserts/esmolol_pi.pdf. Updated June 2004. Accessed July 16, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• . Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, ; American College of Cardiology; American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines; American College of Chest Physicians; International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation; Heart Rhythm Society. ACC/AHA 2005 Guideline Update for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure): developed in collaboration with the American College of Chest Physicians and the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: endorsed by the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2005;112(12): e154–e235
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Ng TM, Shurmur SW, Silver M, . Comparison of N-acetylcysteine and fenoldopam for preventing contrast-induced nephropathy (CAFCIN). Int J Cardiol. 2006;109(3):322–328
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Pannu N, Wiebe N, Tonelli M; Alberta Kidney Disease Network. Prophylaxis strategies for contrast-induced nephropathy. JAMA. 2006;295(23):2765–2779
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Schillinger D. Nifedipine in hypertensive emergencies: a prospective study. J Emerg Med. 1987;5(6):463–473
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Lambert CR, Hill JA, Nichols WW, Feldman RL, Pepine CJ. Coronary and systemic hemodynamic effects of nicardipine. Am J Cardiol. 1985;55(6):652–656
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Vincent JL, Berlot G, Preiser JC, Engelman E, Dereume JP, Khan RJ. Intravenous nicardipine in the treatment of postoperative arterial hypertension. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 1997;11(2):160–164
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Broderick J, Connolly S, Feldmann E, . Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage in adults: 2007 update: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, High Blood Pressure Research Council, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Stroke. 2007;38(6):2001–2023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Adams H, Adams R, Del Zoppo G, Goldstein LB; Stroke Council of the American Heart Association; American Stroke Association. Guidelines for the early management of patients with ischemic stroke: 2005 guidelines update a scientific statement from the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2005;36(4):916–923
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Adams HP Jr, Adams RJ, Brott T, . Guidelines for the early management of patients with ischemic stroke: A scientific statement from the Stroke Council of the American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2003;34(4):1056–1083
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . van Harten J, Burggraaf K, Danhof M, van Brummelen P, Breimer DD. Negligible sublingual absorption of nifedipine. Lancet. 1987;2(8572): 1363–1365
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Fenoldopam Mesylate Injection USP® [package insert]. Bedford, OH: Bedford Laboratories; 2004. http://www.bedfordlabs.com/products/inserts/fenoldopam_pi.pdf. Updated August 2004. Accessed July 16, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• . Bodmann KF, Tröster S, Clemens R, Schuster HP. Hemodynamic profile of intravenous fenoldopam in patients with hypertensive crisis. Clin Investig. 1993;72(1):60–64
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Munger MA, Rutherford WF, Anderson L, . Assessment of intravenous fenoldopam mesylate in the management of severe systemic hypertension. Crit Care Med. 1990;18(5):502–504
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . White WB, Radford MJ, Gonzalez FM, Weed SG, McCabe EJ, Katz AM. Selective dopamine-1 agonist therapy in severe hypertension: effects of intravenous fenoldopam. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;11(5):1118–1123
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Tumlin JA, Finkel KW, Murray PT, Samuels J, Cotsonis G, Shaw AD. Fenoldopam mesylate in early acute tubular necrosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Kidney Dis. 2005;46(1):26–34
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Landoni G, Biondi-Zoccai GG, Tumlin JA, . Beneficial impact of fenoldopam in critically ill patients with or at risk for acute renal failure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;49(1):56–68
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Schroeder HA. Effects on hypertension of sulfhydryl and hydrazine compounds. J Clin Invest. 1951;30(5):672–673
   Google Scholar
• . Shepherd AM, Ludden TM, McNay JL, Lin MS. Hydralazine kinetics after single and repeated oral doses. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1980;28(6):804–811
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Ludden TM, Shepherd AM, McNay JL, Lin MS. Hydralazine kinetics in hypertensive patients after intravenous administration. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1980;28(6):736–742
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . O'Malley K, Segal JL, Israili ZH, Boles M, McNay JL, Dayton PG. Duration of hydralazine action in hypertension. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1975;18(5 pt 1):581–586
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Gerber JG, Nies AS. Antihypertensive agents and the drug therapy of hypertension. In: Goodman LS, Gilman A, Gilman AG, eds. Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 8th ed. New York, NY: Pergamon Press; 1990:784–813
   Google Scholar
• . Straka RJ, Lohr B, Borchardt-Phelps P, Hansen S. Antihypertensive Agents. In: Irwin RS, Cerra FB, Rippe JM, eds. Intensive Care Medicine. 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Little, Brown; 1996:2286–2317
   Google Scholar
• . Bussmann WD, Kenedi P, von Mengden HJ, Nast HP, Rachor N. Comparison of nitroglycerin with nifedipine in patients with hypertensive crisis or severe hypertension. Clin Investig. 1992;70(12): 1085–1088
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Nitrostat® (Nitroglycerin Tablets, USP) [package insert]. Veja Baja, PR: Parke Davis Pharmaceuticals Ltd; 2000. http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_nitrostat.pdf. Updated March 2000. Accessed July 16, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• . Friederich JA, Butterworth JF 4th. Sodium nitroprusside: twenty years and counting. Anesth Analg. 1995;81(1):152–162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Robin ED, McCauley R. Nitroprusside-related cyanide poisoning. Time (long past due) for urgent, effective interventions. Chest. 1992;102(6):1842–1845
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hartmann A, Buttinger C, Rommel T, Czernicki Z, Trtinjiak F. Alteration of intracranial pressure, cerebral blood flow, autoregulation and carbondioxide-reactivity by hypotensive agents in baboons with intracranial hypertension. Neurochirurgia (Stuttg). 1989; 32(2):37–43
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Kondo T, Brock M, Bach H. Effect of intra-arterial sodium nitroprusside on intracranial pressure and cerebral autoregulation. Jpn Heart J. 1984;25(2):231–237
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Griswold WR, Reznik V, Mendoza SA. Nitroprusside-induced intracranial hypertension. JAMA. 1981;246(23):2679–2780
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Anile C, Zanghi F, Bracali A, Maira G, Rossi GF. Sodium nitroprusside and intracranial pressure. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 1981;58(3–4): 203–211
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Mann T, Cohn PF, Holman LB, Green LH, Markis JE, Phillips DA. Effect of nitroprusside on regional myocardial blood flow in coronary artery disease. Results in 25 patients and comparison with nitroglycerin. Circulation. 1978;57(4):732–738
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Cohn JN, Franciosa JA, Francis GS, . Effect of short-term infusion of sodium nitroprusside on mortality rate in acute myocardial infarction complicated by left ventricular failure: results of a Veterans Administration cooperative study. N Engl J Med. 1982;306(19): 1129–1135
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Tumlin JA, Dunbar LM, Oparil S, . Fenoldopam, a dopamine agonist, for hypertensive emergency: a multicenter randomized trial. Fenoldopam Study Group. Acad Emerg Med. 2000;7(6):653–662
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Pasch T, Schulz V, Hoppelshäuser G. Nitroprusside-induced formation of cyanide and its detoxication with thiosulfate during deliberate hypotension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1983;5(1):77–85
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• . Hall VA, Guest JM. Sodium nitroprusside-induced cyanide intoxication and prevention with sodium thiosulfate prophylaxis. Am J Crit Care. 1992;1(2):19–25
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Izumi Y, Benz AM, Clifford DB, Zorumski CF. Neurotoxic effects of sodium nitroprusside in rat hippocampal slices. Exp Neurol. 1993;121(1):14–23
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Niknahad H, O'Brien PJ. Involvement of nitric oxide in nitroprusside-induced hepatocyte cytotoxicity. Biochem Pharmacol. 1996;51(8): 1031–1039
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Gobbel GT, Chan TY, Chan PH. Nitric oxide- and superoxide-mediated toxicity in cerebral endothelial cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1997;282(3):1600–1607
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Nakamura Y, Yasuda M, Fujimori H, Kiyono M, Pan-Hou H. Cytotoxic effect of sodium nitroprusside on PC12 cells. Chemosphere. 1997;34(2):317–324
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• . Rauhala P, Khaldi A, Mohanakumar KP, Chiueh CC. Apparent role of hydroxyl radicals in oxidative brain injury induced by sodium nitroprusside. Free Radic Biol Med. 1998;24(7-8):1065–1073
   PubMedGoogle Scholar