Out of the shadows? The inclusion of men and boys in conceptualisations of wartime sexual violence

Abstract

Researchers increasingly acknowledge that men and boys are frequent victims of sexual violence in conflict alongside women and girls, who remain the group that is disproportionately affected. This increasing awareness has contributed to significant efforts to include men and boys in conceptualisations of conflict-related sexual violence in policy as well as in international criminal law. This article analyses the changes that have occurred in these two fields in recent years. We argue that while a major shift towards including male victims in international policy on wartime sexual violence took place in 2013-2014, this development has yet to be consolidated in salient policy guidelines and handbooks. While men and boys’ potential victimisation is frequently recognised, most policy documents do not treat the topic of male victimisation in depth. International criminal law on the other hand has pioneered gender-neutral and inclusive definitions. However, the interpretation and application of the gender-inclusive approach is often left to the discretion of judges and the prosecution who at times fail to take the experience of males fully into account, signalling the continuing influence of gender stereotypes and deeply held cultural myths. A renewed effort to fully integrate male victims into conceptualisations of conflict-related sexual violence in both policy and law is therefore advised.

Résumé

Les chercheurs sont de plus en plus nombreux à admettre que les hommes et les garçons sont fréquemment victimes de violence sexuelle dans des conflits, aux côtés des femmes et des filles, qui restent le groupe le plus fortement touché. Cette prise de conscience a débouché sur d’importants efforts pour inclure les hommes et les garçons dans les conceptualisations de la violence sexuelle liée aux conflits dans les politiques ainsi que dans le droit pénal international. Cet article analyse les changements qui se sont récemment produits dans ces deux domaines. Nous avançons que si une évolution majeure vers l’inclusion des victimes masculines dans les politiques internationales sur la violence sexuelle en temps de guerre a eu lieu en 2013-2014, cette nouveauté doit encore être consolidée dans les principaux principes directeurs et guides politiques. Si la victimisation potentielle des hommes et des garçons est souvent reconnue, la plupart des documents politiques n’abordent pas cette question en profondeur. D’autre part, le droit pénal international a innové avec des définitions neutres et inclusives. Néanmoins, l’interprétation et l’application de l’approche intégrant les deux sexes sont souvent laissées à la discrétion des juges et de l’accusation qui ne tiennent pas toujours pleinement compte de l’expérience des hommes. Cela révèle l’influence persistante des stéréotypes sexuels et des mythes culturels profondément ancrés. Il est donc conseillé de redoubler d’efforts pour intégrer pleinement les victimes masculines dans les conceptualisations de la violence sexuelle liée aux conflits dans les politiques et le droit.

Resumen

Cada vez más los investigadores reconocen que los hombres y niños son víctimas frecuentes de violencia sexual en conflictos, junto a mujeres y niñas, que continúan siendo el grupo afectado de manera desproporcionada. Esta creciente conciencia ha contribuido a esfuerzos significativos para incluir a hombres y niños en conceptualizaciones de violencia sexual relacionada con conflictos en las políticas y en el derecho penal internacional. Este artículo analiza los cambios que han ocurrido en estos dos campos en los últimos años. Argumentamos que aunque en 2013-2014 hubo un cambio importante para incluir a víctimas de sexo masculino en las políticas internacionales sobre violencia sexual en tiempos de guerra, este suceso aún no ha sido consolidado en directrices y manuales de políticas salientes. Aunque la posible victimación de hombres y niños es reconocida con frecuencia, la mayoría de los documentos de políticas no tratan a fondo el tema de victimación de hombres. Por otro lado, el derecho penal internacional ha liderado definiciones inclusivas y neutrales con relación al género. Sin embargo, la interpretación y aplicación del enfoque inclusivo de género a menudo se deja a la discreción de jueces y la fiscalía, quienes a veces no toman en cuenta la experiencia de los hombres, lo cual es indicio de la continua influencia de estereotipos de género y mitos culturales muy arraigados. Por lo tanto, se aconseja emprender un esfuerzo renovado por integrar en las políticas y leyes a las víctimas de sexo masculino en las conceptualizaciones de la violencia sexual relacionada con conflictos.

Keywords:

• sexual violence
• gender-based violence
• male victims
• conflict
• gender

Acknowledgements

An earlier version of this paper was presented by the authors at the Postgraduate Conference Masculinities, Violence and (Post-)Conflict at Ulster University, Belfast, 14-16 January 2016. We thank Koen Slootmaeckers for comments on earlier drafts. Heleen Touquet's research is supported by the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) grant G.0815.13. Ellen Gorris is an assistant policy officer rights of the child at the European Commission, but writes this article in her private capacity. The views set out in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained in this article.

Notes

* Our article’s focus is on male victims of conflict-related sexual violence. We do not explicitly address in this article the problematic conflation of gender-based violence (GBV) with sexual violence (SV) in many policy frameworks nor the fact that broader definitions of GBV are often also very much centred on female victims.

† Sexual abuse against men is not limited to rape but can also include penetration with objects, castration and forced sterilization, genital mutilation, forced rape of others (including family members), sitting in chemical baths, forced marriage, forced oral sexual acts on soldiers, enforced nudity, forced masturbation It can take place in a number of different settings, including detention, victims’ homes or in public. Many men who have been victims develop serious physical problems (including ruptured anus, incontinence, impotence, infertility, contracting sexually transmitted diseases). While the patterns of violence against women and men differ at times, the psychological effects on the individual are similar: many victims develop post-traumatic stress disorder, are emotionally numb, and disconnect from their families and the community at large.