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ABSTRACT
For some labourers who joined the colonial labour migration system, Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) was not or did not become their final destination. Instead, they regarded the colony as a transit zone through which they clandestinely moved towards the more lucrative South African mines and farms. Not all succeeded in this quest. Those who did deployed numerous tactics ranging from engaging in contractual work within Southern Rhodesia to finance their southward mobility, work desertions, use of social networks, bribes, theft, forgery, and manipulation of the Rhodesian labour recruitment infrastructure. In essence, they ‘settled in motion’, as they systematically migrated either gradually or swiftly from Southern Rhodesia’s northern and eastern entry points towards the shores of the Limpopo River and the Bechuanaland (Botswana) border before eventually crossing into South Africa. The colonial archive includes trails of this internal and informal mobility of trans-Zambezian ‘alien natives’, mainly Nyasas (Malawians), between the 1910s and 1950s. The article, based mainly on this archival residue, casts light on the process of ‘settling in motion’ as a form of African worker consciousness through which industrious Nyasa labour migrants navigated the treacherous and restrictive colonial labour regimes in pursuit of better working conditions and prospects. It argues that in as much as Southern Rhodesia tried to monopolise northern labour for itself, this transient labour consciously viewed and exploited Rhodesia as a staging post for spatial mobility towards the promised land of South Africa. The article aims to contribute to the problematisation and condensation of the internal dynamics involved in this informal transit, and its contextualisation as part of the broader regional labour consciousness and how Nyasas meticulously executed it, as well as its potential contemporary parallels in southern Africa.
Notes
1 British National Archives (NAUK) CO525/173/11, Native Labour, Report by Captain G.N. Burden on Nyasaland Native Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1938; Malawi National Archives (MNA) S1/221A/37, Reports from the Nyasaland Labour Office, Salisbury, 1939.
2 National Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ) S1226, British South Africa Police Files: Correspondence and other Papers: Illegal Recruiting of Native Labour, 1925-1951, Correspondence from the Provincial Criminal Investigation Officer in the BSAP Mashonaland to the Criminal Investigation Department, Salisbury, 5 October 1950.
3 Ibid, Correspondence from the Assistant Superintendent of Police, Bulawayo South Sub-District to the Chief Superintendent, BSAP, Bulawayo, 31 July 1939.
4 Ibid, Correspondence from Sergeant G. Haines of the BSAP, Kezi to the Assistant Commissioner, CID, BSAP, Bulawayo, 1 July 1942.
5 Ibid, Correspondence from the Assistant Superintendent of Police, Bulawayo South Sub-District to the Chief Superintendent, BSAP, Bulawayo, 31 July 1939.
6 Ibid, Letter from the Chief Superintendent, CID, BSAP, to the BSAP Headquarters, Salisbury, 24 October 1939.
7 Ibid, Letter from the Chief Superintendent, BSAP, Bulawayo to the Staff Officer, BSAP on Emigration of Natives via Beitbridge, 11 October 1937.
8 Ibid, Letter from the Assistant Superintendent of Police, Bulawayo to the Chief Superintendent, BSAP, Bulawayo, 7 September 1939.
9 Interview by author with John Karonda, Hatcliffe Extension, Harare, 23 August 2012.
10 Interview by author with Samson Medi Mbewe, (son of the late Rueben Mbewe), Banket, Zimbabwe, 13 November 2019.
11 NAZ S138/22, Native Movements: 1923-1933, Correspondence between Office of the Native Commissioner, Gwanda and the Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo on Natives proceeding to the Union, 15 February 1924.
12 Ibid, Letter to the Attorney General, Salisbury from Lieutenant Staff Officer in Commissioner’s Office, British South Africa Company on Natives of Southern Rhodesia obtaining employment in the Transvaal, 2 June, 1925.
13 Ibid.
14 NAZ S1226, British South Africa Police Files: Correspondence and other Papers: Illegal Recruiting of Native Labour, 1925-1951, Correspondence from the Provincial Criminal Investigation Officer in the BSAP Mashonaland to the Criminal Investigation Department, Salisbury, 5 October 1950.
15 Ibid, Correspondence from Sergeant G. Haines of the BSAP, Kezi to the Assistant Commissioner, CID, BSAP, Bulawayo, 1 July 1942.
16 Ibid, Letter from F.W. Harrison, the Assistant Native Commissioner to the Native Commissioner, Bulawayo on Clandestine Migration of Natives to the Union, 21 March 1944.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid
20 NAZ S138/22, Native Movements: 1923-1933, Letter to the Attorney General, Salisbury from Lieutenant Staff Officer, Commissioner’s Office, British South Africa Company on Natives of S. Rhodesia obtaining employment in the Transvaal, 2 June, 1925.
21 NAZ S1226, British South Africa Police Files: Correspondence and other Papers: Illegal Recruiting of Native Labour, 1925-1951, Correspondence from the Provincial Criminal Investigation Officer in the BSAP Mashonaland to the Criminal Investigation Department, Salisbury, 5 October 1950.
22 Ibid, Correspondence from G. Trench, Controller of Censorship, Bulawayo to the Native Commissioner, Bulawayo, 20 April 1944.
23 Ibid, Correspondence from the Chief Superintendent, CID, BSAP to the Secretary, Department of Mines and Public Works, Salisbury, 19 February 1940.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid, Correspondence from (Lt. Col.) Officer Commanding, CID HQ to The Commissioner, BSAP HQ, Salisbury, 10 Feb 1951.
26 Ibid.
27 Ibid, Correspondence from Detective Sergeant Leaver, CID, Bulawayo, to Detective Inspector CID, Bulawayo, 29 March 1944.
28 Ibid, Correspondence from the Assistant Commissioner, CID, B.S.A Police to the Superintendent, CID, Zomba, Nyasaland, 30 March 1944.
29 NAZ S138/22, Native Movements: 1923-1933, Letter from Assistant Native Commissioner, Mtengwetengwe to the Native Commissioner, Gwanda on Rhodesian natives proceeding to the Union, 4 February 1924.
30 Ibid, Correspondence between Chief Native Commissioner, Salisbury, and the Secretary to the Premier, Salisbury, on the Emigration of Natives to the Transvaal, 21 November 1925.
31 Ibid, Correspondence from Office of the Assistant Native Commissioner, Nuanetsi to the Native Commissioner, Chibi on Natives Proceeding to the Union, 2 September 1925.
32 Ibid, letter from H.S. Cooke, Director of Native Labour, Department of Native Affairs, Johannesburg to the Principal Immigration Officer, Pretoria on alleged illegal recruitment of S. Rhodesia Natives, 18th September, 1925.
33 Ibid, letter from Assistant Native Commissioner, Mtetengwe to the Native Commissioner, Gwanda on Natives from Rhodesia entering Transvaal, 7 May 1925.
34 NAZ S1226, British South Africa Police Files: Correspondence and other Papers: Illegal Recruiting of Native Labour, 1925-1951, Letter from Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo to the Chief Native Commissioner on Gwanda Monthly Report, October 1926: Labour Passing through District to Transvaal, 20 November 1926.
35 Ibid, Correspondence from Office of the Native Commissioner, Gwanda to the Superintendent of Natives, Matabeleland on Alien natives proceeding to Mtetengwe and Messina, 17 June 1925.
36 Ibid.
37 NAZ N3/22/5, Native Labour: From Nyasaland, 22 January 1910-16 December 1922; Correspondence from the NC, Mazoe to the Superintendent of Natives, Salisbury, 1 December 1922.
38 Ibid, Correspondence from A.S. Tabern the CNC, Zomba to the CNC, Salisbury on Native Raiders Nyasaland, 26 June 1910.
39 NAZ S1226, British South Africa Police Files: Correspondence and other Papers: Illegal Recruiting of Native Labour, 1925-1951, Correspondence from the Provincial Criminal Investigation Officer in the BSAP Mashonaland to the Criminal Investigation Department, Salisbury, 5 October 1950.
40 Ibid, Correspondence from the Chief Superintendent of Police, Bulawayo to the Staff Officer, BSA Police, 31 July 1939.
41 Ibid, Correspondence from the Assistant Superintendent of Police, Bulawayo South Sub-District to the Chief Superintendent, BSAP, Bulawayo, 31 July 1939.
42 Ibid, Correspondence from the Chief Superintendent of Police, Bulawayo to the Staff Officer, BSAP, 31 July 1939.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid, Letter from Bulawayo North Compound Inspector to the Superintendent of Natives, Bulawayo, 2 May 1939.
45 Ibid, Letter from the Chief Superintendent, CID, BSAP, to the Staff Officer, BSAP, Salisbury, 15 June 1939.
46 Ibid, Correspondence from H.E. Dixon, Supt, O.C. No.2 District, Bechuanaland Protectorate Police, Palapye to the Superintendent BSAP, Bulawayo, 22 November 1945.
47 NAUK CO525/173/6, Nyasaland, Native Labour: Transport of Nyasaland Labour to and from Southern Rhodesia, Proposed Road Transport Service, 1938.
48 NAUK DO35/3710, Native Affairs: Annual Report of the Secretary for Native Affairs, CNC and Director of Native Development, 1948; NAUK CO525/173/6, Nyasaland, Native Labour: Transport of Nyasaland Labour to and from Southern Rhodesia, Proposed Road Transport Service, 1938. See also ‘For Labour: Transport to be provided’, The Bulawayo Chronicle 20 January 1938.
49 NAUK DO35/3710, Native Affairs: Annual Report of the Secretary for Native Affairs, CNC and Director of Native Development, 1948.
50 Ibid, Letter from the Chief Superintendent, CID, BSAP, to the Staff Officer, BSAP, Salisbury, 15 June 1939.
51 Ibid, Native Affairs: Correspondence from 3D/Sergeant W.B. Parr, CID Salisbury to the Assistant Superintendent CID, Salisbury, 10 May 1939.
52 Ibid, Correspondence from Detective Sergeant Leaver, CID, Bulawayo, to Detective Inspector CID, Bulawayo, 29 March 1944.
53 Ibid, Correspondence from the Chief Superintendent and Salisbury Divisional Criminal Investigation Officer, H.G. Seward to the Inspector General, BSAP, Salisbury, 2 December 1944.
54 Ibid, Correspondence from Grade Steward, J.J. De Lange, Mafikeng to System Manager, Kimberley, 10 November 1944.
55 Ibid, Correspondence from Bulawayo Divisional Criminal Investigation Officer, Captain Harrison to the Sub-Inspector in Charge, BSAP, Plumtree, 31 July 1944.
56 Ibid, Correspondence from Grade Steward, J.J. De Lange, Mafikeng to System Manager, Kimberley, 10 November 1944.
57 Ibid, Correspondence from Detective Sergeant, BSAP, Bulawayo to Criminal Investigation Department, Bulawayo, 3 November 1944.
58 Ibid, Correspondence from Bulawayo Divisional Criminal Investigation Officer, Captain Harrison to the Sub-Inspector in Charge, BSAP, Plumtree, 31 July 1944.
59 NAUK CO525/220, Nyasaland: Migration of Labour, Native Laws Commission of Enquiry Notes Relating to Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia Natives Employed in the Union of South Africa, 1949.
60 NAZ S1226, British South Africa Police Files: Correspondence and other Papers: Illegal Recruiting of Native Labour, 1925-1951, Letter from the Chief Superintendent, BSAP, Bulawayo to the Staff Officer, BSAP on Emigration of Natives via Beitbridge, 11 October 1937.
61 Ibid, Letter from the Chief Superintendent, CID, BSAP, to the Staff Officer, BSAP, Salisbury, 15 June 1939.
62 Ibid.
63 Ibid, Letter from the Chief Superintendent, CID, BSAP, to the Staff Officer, BSAP, Salisbury, 15 June 1939
64 NAUK CO525/220, Nyasaland: Migration of Labour, Native Laws Commission of Enquiry Notes Relating to Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia Natives Employed in the Union of South Africa, 1949.
65 NAUK DO35/3710, Native Affairs: Annual Report of the Secretary for Native Affairs, CNC and Director of Native Development, 1947; and NAUK CO525/193/5, Nyasaland Native Labour: Recruitment for the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, 1947.
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Anusa Daimon
Dr Anusa Daimon is with the International Studies Group at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.