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Methods, Models, and GIS

Cognitively Inspired and Perceptually Salient Graphic Displays for Efficient Spatial Inference Making

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Pages 13-29 | Received 01 Mar 2008, Accepted 01 Nov 2008, Published online: 14 Dec 2009
 

Abstract

Developing a visual hierarchy in map displays that is congruent with thematic levels of relevance is a fundamental cartographic design task. Cartographers employ a set of visual variables (e.g., size, color hue, color value, orientation, etc.) for 2-D, static maps to systematically match levels of thematically relevant information to a perceptual hierarchy based on figure–ground relationships. In this article, we empirically investigate the relationship of thematic relevance and perceptual salience in static weather map displays. We are particularly interested in how novices' viewing patterns are modified when thematically relevant items are made perceptually more salient through design. In essence, we are asking whether perceptually salient elements draw novice viewers' attention to thematically relevant information, whether or not users have domain knowledge.

In a factorial experiment, we ask novice participants to evaluate the wind direction in weather maps before and after training all participants on meteorological principles. Our empirical results suggest that display design (i.e., saliency) does not influence the accuracy of response, whether participants have prior knowledge or not (i.e., training). Analysis of the eye-movement patterns, however, suggests that display design does affect viewing behavior and response time. These findings provide rare empirical evidence for generally accepted design practices within the cartographic community (e.g., the effects of visual variables). We chose weather map displays as one typical example of commonly used maps for our study, but the methods employed are generic enough to be applicable to any spatial display (static or interactive) that might be produced by GIScientists, cartographers, geographic information system (GIS) practitioners, and others.

Desarrollar una jerarquía visual en los despliegues del mapa, que sea congruente con los niveles temáticos de relevancia, es una tarea fundamental de diseño cartográfico. Los cartógrafos utilizan un conjunto de variables visuales (e.g., tamaño, matiz de color, valor del color, orientación, etc.) para mapas estáticos, de 2-D, a fin de alcanzar de manera sistemática niveles de información temáticamente relevante para una jerarquía perceptual basada en la relación figura-realidad. De modo empírico, en este artículo investigamos la relación de relevancia temática y notabilidad perceptual en despliegues de mapas meteorológicos estáticos. Nos interesa, en particular, la manera como se modifican en los novatos los patrones visuales, cuando ítems temáticamente relevantes se hacen perceptualmente mucho más salientes por medio de diseño. En esencia, lo que estamos preguntando es si los elementos que se destacan perceptualmente captan la atención de observadores novatos hacia la información que es relevante desde el punto de vista temático, sea que los usuarios tengan o no suficiente conocimiento del tema. En un experimento factorial, le pedimos a participantes novatos evaluar la dirección del viento en mapas meteorológicos, antes y después de que a todos los participantes se les enseñaran principios meteorológicos. Nuestros resultados empíricos sugieren que el diseño del despliegue (i.e., notabilidad) no influye en la exactitud de la respuesta, así sea que los entrevistados hayan tenido conocimiento previo o no (i.e., entrenamiento). El análisis de los patrones de movimiento del ojo, sin embargo, sugiere que el diseño del despliegue en verdad afecta la conducta de la observación y el tiempo de respuesta. Estos descubrimientos nos brindan una rara evidencia empírica sobre prácticas de diseño generalmente aceptadas por la comunidad cartográfica (e.g., los efectos de las variables visuales). Escogimos para nuestro estudio los despliegues del mapa del tiempo, a título de ejemplo típico de mapas de uso común, pero los métodos son lo suficientemente genéricos para poder aplicarse a cualquier despliegue espacial (estático o interactivo) que sea producido por científicos de la información y comunicación geográficas, cartógrafos, practicantes de los sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) y otros.

Acknowledgments

This material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0350910, by the Swiss National Science Fund under Grant No. 200021-113745 (Sara Irina Fabrikant, Stacy Rebich Hespanha), and the Office of Naval Research Grant No. N000140310119 (Mary Hegarty). We gratefully acknowledge Daniel Montello's continued stimulating feedback, lively discussions, and support on this project from its inception. We thank Kirk Goldsberry, Maral Tashjian, and Natalie Campos for their assistance in designing and running the experiments and João Hespanha for development of the eyeMAT application to facilitate eye-movement data recalibration and analysis. We also thankfully acknowledge Thomas Grossmann's valuable contribution on the development of the eyeview tool and Laurent Itti and Ruth Rosenholtz for making the saliency code available to us.

Notes

1. Gaze plots shown in this article (i.e., and ) were visualized with a developed visual analytics tool called EyeView described in CitationGrossmann (2007).

2. Available online at http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/data/composites/printpage.pl/hour/ (last accessed 24 January 2009).

3. This Matlab toolbox was developed by João Hespanha of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Stacy Rebich Hespanha of the Department of Geography at the University of California, Santa Barbara.

4. For example, for the pressure systems we selected circles with a 92-pixel diameter.

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