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Abstract
Britain’s high-rise public housing era is widely seen as a serious social policy mistake. We show that the problems associated with this housing format were known to policy makers at an early stage, while tower blocks were also substantially more expensive, both from the perspective of central, and local, government. Conservatives governments championed high-rise mainly owing to the political advantages of urban containment. Major building contractors then used their close links with (central and local) policy-makers to aggressively lobby for high-rise ʽsystem building,’ as their expertise in this field enabled them to dominate the sector and exclude local competitors.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Martin Chick, James Foreman-Peck, Tony Gandy, Geoff Meen, Jim Tomlinson, James T. Walker, and two anonymous referees, for comments on previous drafts, and to London Metropolitan Archives and The National Archives, Kew, for access to sources. Any errors are my own.
Notes
1. Yelling, ‘Incidence of Slum Clearanceʼ, 235; Urban, Tower and Slab, 14–15.
2. Finnimore, Houses from the Factory, 79–103, argues that policy-makers saw this as a cost-reducing technology, while Rowlands, Musterd, and van Kempen, Mass Housing in Europe, 8–9; and Urban, Tower and Slab, 14, state that industrialised building reduced building costs by achieving scale economies.
3. Glendinning and Muthesius, Tower Block, 157–9.
4. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 101–103.
5. Finnimore, Houses from the Factory, 1–2.
6. Glendinning and Muthesius, Tower Block, 155.
7. Ibid, 157.
8. Ibid, 156 & 173.
9. Ibid, 180, 322, and 325.
10. See Scott, Making of the Modern British Home, Chapters 2–4.
11. Burnett, Social History of Housing, 247–8; Cooney, ʽHigh Flats,’ 158–9.
12. Rowlands, Musterd, and van Kempen, Mass Housing in Europe, 8.
13. Finnimore, Houses from the Factory, 35–48.
14. Holmans, Housing Policy, 114. Figures for ratios of flats to all municipal housing include new towns, but not housing associations or ʽpre-fabs’.
15. Holmans, Housing Policy, 114.
16. Scott, Making of the Modern British Home, 205–212.
17. Shapely, ʽCouncil Wars,’ 104–112; Ward, Peaceful Path, 188–94; 241–5; Holmans, Housing Policy, 118.
18. Cooney, ‘High flats,’ 163–4.
19. Hansard, HC Deb 26 April 1955 vol. 540, 44–5.
20. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’, 130; 133; Shapely, ‘Council Wars.’.
21. McCutcheon, ‘Science, Technology, and the State,’ 355.
22. Urban, Tower and Slab, 10.
23. Scott, Making of the Modern British Home, 39; Bauhaus Dessau: Bauhaus Buildings,Törten Estate by Walter Gropius Toww.bauhaus-dessau.de/toerten-estate-4.html (accessed 27th September 2017).
24. The National Archives (hereafter TNA), EW24/30, ‘Industrial Housing Demand,’ memorandum by J.E. Beddoe, 24 June 1965.
25. TNA, HLG101/507, ‘New Flat Development,’ MHLG, Housing Policy Committee memorandum by A. E. Hickinbotham, 22 July 1953.
26. TNA, DSIR 4/2808, ‘Review of Current Research on High Flats,’ draft report for Building Research Board, no date, c. 1955.
27. TNA, HLG 101/394, extract from ‘The Local Authority View on Subsidised Housing,’ Municipal Journal, 62, No. 3202 (2 July 1964).
28. Brooke, ‘Effects of Housing Subsidies.’.
29. TNA, EW24/30, ‘Industrial Housing Demand,’ memorandum by J.E. Beddoe, 24 June 1965.
30. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 162–3.
31. Ibid, 161–162.
32. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’ 45.
33. Ibid, 217; Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 115.
34. McCutcheon, ‘Science, Technology, and the State,’ 362.
35. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’ 124.
36. Cooney, ‘High Flats,’ 168.
37. Glendinning and Muthesius, Tower Block, 201.
38. Davenport-Hines, ‘Rachman, Peter (1920?–1962)’.
39. TNA, EW24/30, ‘Housing’, memorandum by Evelyn Sharp, 22 July 1965.
40. TNA, EW24/30, ‘Industrial Housing Demand,’ memorandum by J.E. Beddoe, 24 June 1965.
41. TNA, EW24/30, ‘Housing’. memorandum by Evelyn Sharp, 22 July 1965.
42. ‘Houses, Fast’, Economist, 1039.
43. McCutcheon, ‘Science, Technology, and the State’, 364–5.
44. Speech by Harold Wilson at Labour Party Annual Conference, 1 October 1963, available at: http://nottspolitics.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Labours-Plan-for-science.pdf
45. Finnimore, Houses from the Factory, 93.
46. TNA, PREM3/962, report prepared for the Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, signed R.H.S.C., 23 June 1966.
47. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 62.
48. Cited in Finnimore, Houses from the Factory, 104.
49. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’ 48.
50. Finnimore, Houses from the Factory, 104–5.
51. TNA, HLG116/49, F. Schaffer to C.B.S. Hindley, Welwyn Garden City and Hatfield Development Corporations, 9 December 1964.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 156–8.
55. TNA, PREM 3/962, report prepared for the Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, signed R.H.S.C., 23 June 1966.
56. Cooney, ‘High Flats,’ 170–171.
57. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’ 51.
58. Parker Morris standards were originally presented as guidelines in Ministry of Housing and Local Government, Homes for Today and Tomorrow.
59. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 38 & 121–3; Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’ 51–53; Cooney, ‘High Flats,’ 171.
60. Berry, Housing, 87.
61. Alliance Building Society, Housing Land Crisis, 30.
62. TNA, HLG 111/143, J.E. Beddoe to Mr Philips, 30 April 1958.
63. TNA, HLG 118/293, ‘Housing Storeys: Report by Officials,’ Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 16 January 1965.
64. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 87–88.
65. Shapely, ‘Council Wars,’ 104–6.
66. Best, ‘Against High Density’.
67. Peden, Treasury and British Public Policy, 497–98.
68. Glendinning and Muthesius, Tower Block, 174 & 180.
69. Ibid, 207.
70. TNA, HLG 101/394, J.E. Beddoe to F.S. Wilkinson, 19 January 1954.
71. TNA, HLG 111/143, J.E. Beddoe to Parliamentary Secretary, MHLG, 26 March 1958.
72. TNA, HLG 111/143, J.E. Beddoe to Mr Philips, 30 April 1958.
73. TNA, HLG 111/143, J.E. Beddoe to Parliamentary Secretary, MHLG, 26 March 1958.
74. Wellings, British Housebuilders, 63–64.
75. Fitzwater and Taylor, Web of Corruption, 39–40, 69, 153, 268.
76. For a review of studies conducted in the 1960s, see Darke and Darke, Health and Environments.
77. TNA, HLG 101/394, S.F. Wilkinson to ʽSecretary’, MHLG, 13 January 1954.
78. Maizels, Two to Five in High Flats, 1.
79. See Darke and Darke, Health and Environments, 8–10.
80. London Metropolitan Archives, GLC/DG/HG/11/055, LCC, ‘Play Facilities for Younger Children Living in High Flats,’ report by London County Council Architect and Director of Housing, 29th June 1961; further report, by the Architect, Director of Housing, and Education Officer, 27th June 1962; Maizels, Two to Five in High Flats, 23.
81. For a review of early studies, see Darke and Darke, Health and Environments, 10–13.
82. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’ 151–152.
83. Cooney, ‘High Flats,’ 158.
84. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall,’ 149–151.
85. Ibid, 157.
86. Ibid, 83.
87. Urban councils varied in their enthusiasm for high-rise housing, with some major metropolitan councils, such as Manchester and Glasgow, initially following a policy based mainly on ‘overspill’ suburban estates of conventional houses. Shapely, ‘Council Warsʼ, 100.
88. See, for example, Singleton, ‘Full Steam Ahead?’ 983–4.
89. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing,. 20–21.
90. TNA, AT39/7, copy of Laurie Flynn, ʽDo Contractors Need an MP on the Board?’ Construction News, 16 April 1970.
91. Fitzwater and Taylor, Web of Corruption, 102–5.
92. ‘Houses, fast’, Economist, 1039.
93. Fitzwater and Taylor, Web of Corruption, 153.
94. Cited in Fitzwater and Taylor, Web of Corruption, 270–71.
95. TNA, IR40/1816, ‘J.G.L. Poulson. Summary of the position as at 1 June 1973’.
96. Fitzwater and Taylor, Web of Corruption, 7.
97. TNA, AT39/7, confidential memorandum regarding reports suggestive of corruption in building contracting, by L. Tovell, Deputy Chief Inspector of Audit, February 1970.
98. TNA, AT39/7, copy of article, ‘Councillors got bribes in house deals, says ex-mayor,’ Daily Telegraph, 15th June 1973.
99. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 283.
100. Ibid, 294.
101. TNA, J291/59, Metropolitan Police, Company Fraud Dept. report, 14 February 1974.
102. Fitzwater and Taylor, Web of Corruption, 185.
103. Ibid, 9.
104. Fitzwater and Taylor, Web of Corruption, 250–252 (252 for quote).
105. McCutcheon, ‘Science, technology, and the state,’ 360.
106. TNA, HLG118/1147, ‘Ronan Point – General Background,’ undated note, c. November 1970; Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 244 & 247.
107. TNA, HLG118/1302, ‘Ronan Point Grant,’ memorandum, July 1970, Appendix II; Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 177. 2016 prices calculated using https://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare/relativevalue.php (accessed on 13th June 2017), deflated by retail price index.
108. TNA, HLG118/1147, ‘Strengthening of High Rise Flats. Financial Implications,’ notes of a meeting by J. Marlow, 3 June 1969.
109. Ibid. For records that make explicit reference to pressuring local authorities, see TNA, HLG118/866, ‘Ronan Point,’ Treasury memorandum 4 December 1968; TNA, EW 24/30, ‘Industrial Housing Demand,’ memorandum by J.E. Beddoe, 24 June 1965.
110. TNA, HLG118/1147, ‘Strengthening of High Rise Flats. Financial Implicationsʼ, notes of a meeting by J. Marlow, 3 June 1969.
111. Most councils received a 49 per cent grant, the balance being set aside for a fund to further assist one or two relatively small authorities with modest rate resources.
112. TNA, HLG118/1302, ‘Background Note. Grant for Strengthening High Blocks of Flatsʼ, November 1970.
113. Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 249.
114. Jones, ‘Rise and Fallʼ, 171–2.
115. Ibid, 60.
116. Association of Metropolitan Authorities, Inquiry into British Housing, 17.
117. Holmans, Housing Policy in Britain, 114–15; Dunleavy, Politics of Mass Housing, 353.
118. Jones, ‘Rise and Fall’, 157–8.
119. Jones, ‘Rise and Fallʼ, 45.
120. Association of Metropolitan Authorities, Inquiry into British Housing, 18.
121. Powell, British Building Industry, 174–6.