Beyond quota seats for women in the Tanzanian legislature

Abstract

To assess the utility of quota experience in winning open seats, this article examined the factors explaining why only a small number of quota members of parliament (MPs) switch to non-quota seats in the context of Tanzania, where quota seats for women have been in place for three decades. Despite the socioeconomic and political forces offsetting the advantages of quota seats, special seats, if used effectively, are instrumental to winning constituency seats. To materialize a switch to a constituency seat, an early decision to run, strategic selection of a constituency, a track record of service to the target constituency, and mobilization of grassroots women are essential for special-seat women. The findings of this study, therefore, shed some light on how women’s parliamentary representation can move beyond the dependence on gender quotas.

RÉSUMÉ

Dans un objectif d’évaluation de l’utilité des quotas pour l’accès à des sièges parlementaires ouverts en Tanzanie, cet article examine les facteurs expliquant pourquoi seulement un nombre restreint de députées ayant des sièges réservés passent à des sièges non réservés en fonction des quotas, quand bien même la représentation parlementaire féminine dans le pays est garantie par ce système des quotas, en place depuis trois décennies. Malgré les forces socioéconomiques et politiques qui contrebalancent les avantages offerts par les sièges réservés, les sièges spéciaux, s’ils sont utilisés efficacement, ont un rôle déterminant dans la course aux sièges de circonscription. Afin de matérialiser leur désir d’obtenir un siège de circonscription, il est essentiel que les députées occupant des sièges réservés fournissent leur bilan des services rendus à la circonscription visée et mobilisent des femmes au niveau local. Ainsi, les résultats de cette étude apportent un éclairage sur la manière dont la représentation parlementaire féminine peut progresser indépendamment des quotas de genre.

Keywords:

• Special seat
• gender quotas
• Tanzanian legislature
• quota-seat experience
• constituency seat
• quota MPs

Notes

1. The proportion of female constituency MPs who started their parliamentary career as a special-seat MP is 75% for the period 1995–2000; 50% for 2000–2005; 58.82% 2005–2010; 38.1% 2010–2015; and 52% 2015–2020, respectively. These percentages were collected by the author over time from the parliamentary website.

2. Interview with Ichikaeli Maro, the head of Research, Innovation, and Documentation and editor of Tanzania Standard Newspapers, Dar es Salaam, 31 May 2013; interview with Godfrida Jola, Andrew Mbega, and Nobelrich Ekonea at TAMWA, Sinza Mori, an outer area of Dar es Salaam, 29 May 2013. Maro was the chairperson of TAMWA.

3. The numbers of constituency and special-seat MPs have varied across the elections with increases.

4. Job Ndugai, a CCM male MP, became the speaker of the 2015–2020 parliament.

5. A constitutional amendment in India in 1993 addresses that “Thirty-three percent of all council seats (at village, block and district levels) and thirty-three percent of all council president seats are required to be reserved for women” (Kalaramadam 2012, 276).

6. Interview with Ahmed Ngwali, a first-term CUF male MP, Dodoma, 3 June 2013.

7. For the quota data, see International Institute for Democratic and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), Stockholm Universitet, and Inter-Parliamentary Union (2015).

8. For electoral systems, see International Institute for Democratic and Electoral Assistance (IDEA 2015).

9. The number of reserved-seat MPs, therefore, is equal to the number of counties in Kenya and to the number of districts in Uganda. Kenya has 47 counties and Uganda has 112 districts.

10. I tallied the number of constituency seats won by each party, using the list of winners reported in National Electoral Commission (2015b).

11. Political parties submit a list of nominees for special seats to the National Electoral Commission, which proportionally distributes special seats by parties.

12. Interviews with CHADEMA special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013.

13. Interview with Joyce Mukya, a first-term CHADEMA special-seat MP, Dodoma, 5 June 2013.

14. Interview with Susan Kiwanga, a first-term CHADEMA special-seat MP, Dodoma, 5 June 2013. Kiwanga won a constituency seat in 2015.

15. Interview with Halima Mdee, a first-term CHADEMA female constituency MP, Dar es Salam, 9 June 2013. She switched to a constituency seat in 2010 after her first term as a special-seat MP in the 2005–2010 parliament. She is reelected in 2015 for her second term as a constituency MP. She is currently the chairperson of the CHADEMA women’s wing, Baraza la Wanawake Chadema (BAWACHA).

16. The president can serve up to two five-year terms.

17. Interview with Jenista Mhagama, a CCM female constituency MP, Dodoma, 5 June 2013. Mhagama was elected in the constituency in 2005 after her first term as a special-seat MP in the 2000–2005 parliament. She was reelected in 2015 for her third term as a constituency MP. She was one of the five presiding officers in the 2010–2015 parliament and is currently the minister of state in the Prime Minister’s Office.

18. Interview with Job Ndugai, Dodoma, 3 June 2013.

19. Interview with a second-term CCM special-seat MP (anonymous), Dodoma, 3 June 2013. She was elected in the constituency in 2015.

20. The president also appoints regional and district commissioners, who are the top authorities in regions and districts, respectively.

21. Interviews with special-seat MPs and female constituency MPs who transferred from special seats, Dodoma, June 2013. This was a unanimous view among these women.

22. Interviews with special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013. The Tanzania Broadcast Corporation (TBC) channel of the Tanzania television network broadcasts parliamentary debates live. Newspapers also report MPs’ activities on a daily basis.

23. Interview with Ichikaeli Maro, Dar es Salaam, 31 May 2013.

24. Interview with Andrew Mbega, a male officer of TAMWA, Sinza Mori, 29 May 2013.

25. Interview with Anna Abdullah, a CCM special-seat MP, Dodoma, 6 June 2013. Abdullah is a veteran politician who has been in politics for four decades. She was a regional secretary for the period, 1975–1980; regional commissioner, 1980–1990; appointed MP, 1990–1995; constituency MP, 1995–2005; and special-seat MP, 2005–2015.

26. Interview with Nobelrich Ekonea, a male officer of TAMWA, Sinza Mori, 29 May 2013.

27. Interview with Rebecca Mngodo, a first-term CHADEMA special-seat MP, Dodoma, 6 June 2013.

28. Interview with Anna Abdullah, Dodoma, 6 June 2013.

29. Interview with Lucy Nkya, a CCM female constituency MP, Dodoma, 4 June 2013. She made a switch from a special seat in 2010 after her first term as a special-seat MP.

30. Interviews with special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013.

31. Interviews with female MPs (constituency MPs, special-seat MPs, and constituency MPs with special-seat experience), Dodoma, June 2013.

32. Interview with Rebecca Mngodo, Dodoma, 6 June 2013.

33. Interviews with special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013. This was also a unanimous view among the special-seat MPs I interviewed during my earlier field trips to Tanzania.

34. Interviews with female constituency MPs who won constituency seats with or without special-seat experience, Dodoma, June 2013.

35. Interview with Halima Mdee, Dar es Salaam, 9 June 2013.

36. Interview with Halima Mdee, Dar es Salaam, 9 June 2013.

37. Interviews with both male and female constituency MPs and special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013; interview with TAMWA officers, Sinza Mori, 29 May 2013.

38. Interviews with both male and female constituency MPs and special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013; interview with TAMWA officers, Sinza Mori, 29 May 2013.

39. Interviews with both male and female constituency MPs and special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013.

40. Interviews with both male and female constituency MPs and special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013; interview with Ichikaeli Maro, Dar es Salaam, 31 May 2013.

41. Interview with a second-term CCM special-seat MP (the same anonymous MP), Dodoma, 3 June 2013.

42. Constituency MPs receive the same amount of fund regardless of the size and needs of the constituency.

43. Interviews with special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013.

44. Interviews with special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013.

45. Interview with Speaker Anne Makinda, a CCM female constituency MP, Dodoma, 6 June 2013; interview with Jenista Mhagama, Dodoma, 5 June 2013; interview with Zabein Mhita, a CCM female constituency MP, Dodoma, 7 June 2013. All of these female constituency MPs have a special-seat experience.

46. Interview with Ahmed Ngwali, Dodoma, 3 June 2013.

47. Interview with Ichikaeli Maro, Dar es Salaam, 31 May 2013; interview with Anna Abdullah, Dodoma, 6 June 2013.

48. Interview with Wilbrod Slaa, Dodoma, 19 June 2008. He was the CHADEMA’s presidential candidate in 2010.

49. The author tallied the number of female candidates of each party from the list of parliamentary candidates reported in National Electoral Commission (2015a).

50. Interviews with female constituency MPs who have and who do not have a special-seat experience, Dodoma, June 2013.

51. Interviews with female constituency MPs who transferred from special-seats, Dodoma, June 2013.

52. Interview with Halima Mdee, Dar es Salaam, 9 June 2013.

53. Interview with Lucy Nkya, Dodoma, 4 June 2013.

54. Interview with Halima Mdee, Dar es Salaam, 9 June 2013.

55. Interview with Janista Mahagama, Dodoma, 5 June 2013.

56. Interview with Zabein Mhita, Dodoma, 7 June 2013.

57. Interviews with both male and female constituency MPs and special-seat MPs, Dodoma, June 2013. This description of voting behavior was consistent across the MPs I interviewed in 2013 as well as during my earlier field work in Tanzania, which included more than 60 interviews with MPs and women’s non-governmental organization leaders.

58. Interview with Ichikaeli Maro, Dar es Salaam, 31 May, 2013.

59. Interview with Lucy Nkya, Dodoma, 4 June 2013.

60. Interview with Lucy Nkya, Dodoma, 4 June 2013.

61. Interview with Janista Mhagama, Dodoma, 5 June 2013.

62. Interview with Zabein Mhita, Dodoma, 7 June 2013.

63. By “these MPs,” I refer to Lucy Nkya, Janista Mhagama, and Zabein Mhita.

64. Interview with Salome Daudi Mwambu, a female CCM constituency MP, Dodoma, 3 June 2013. She has never held a special seat.

65. Interview with Halima Mdee, Dar es Salaam, 9 June 2013.

66. For the English translation of the draft constitution, see Legal and Human Rights Centre (2013).