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Abstract
This article uses Japanese, Chinese, and Western European sources to discuss the plan of the main Japanese general Katō Kiyomasa 加藤清正 to trade with Luzon in the course of the war to invade Korea in the 1590s. In December 1593, Katō Kiyomasa sent a letter from Korea to his territory of Higo directing them to send one of his “Tang boats” to import large quantities of goods such as wheat and silver. At the time, Tang boats were generally used for long-distance routes, and wheat was one of the main goods imported from Japan to Luzon, so this Tang boat may have been sent to Luzon 呂宋. As the East Asian War dragged on, Katō Kiyomasa was very worried about lacking munitions (particularly gunpowder), so he planned on using profits from the Luzon trade to supplement the ever-growing military expenses.
In late-sixteenth-century East Asia, military consumables such as lead and saltpeter were mainly imported through three routes to Japan: the Portuguese Macau–Nagasaki trade, the Chinese smuggler Fujian–Kyushu trade, and the relay trade from China or Southeast Asia through Luzon to Kyushu. However, around 1593, due to the impact of the East Asian War, munitions imported from China to Luzon fell sharply, and the Spanish were also faced with a lack of munitions. On the other hand, while Japan's gold demand as a means of making military expenditures was surging, Katō Kiyomasa certainly planned on importing gold from Luzon and using this to gather munitions like lead and saltpeter in the Japanese domestic market. In addition, starting in the 1590s, apart from Luzon, Japanese merchant ships also started visiting mainland parts of Southeast Asia and trading with them, showing that the red-seal ship trade of the early seventeenth century had origins in the late sixteenth century.
Notes
Notes
1 Kobata Atsushi, “Akiyo shōzen hito no kaigai tsūshō hatten,” (The development of foreign trade in Ming Zhangzhou and Quanzhou), in Kobata Atsushi, Kingin bōekishi no kenkyū (Studies on the History of the Gold and Silver Trade) (Tōkyō, Japan: Hōsei daigaku shuppankyoku, 1976), 243–83. Sakuma Shigeo, “Akiyo kōki ni okeru shōshū no kaigai bōeki—shōki no shuchi shōsaku ni tsuite,” (Foreign trade in late Ming Zhangzhou—Xiao Ji's strategy to relieve the merchants), in Sakuma Shigeo, Nichimin kankeishi no kenkyū (Studies on the History of Japan-Ming Relations) (Tokyo, Japan: Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 1992), 322–45.
2 C.R. Boxer, The Great Ship From Amacon: Annals of Macao and the Old Japan Trade, 1555–1640 (Lisboa, Portugal: Centro de Estudos Historicos Ultramarinos, 1960). Chen Ching-Ho, Shiliu shiji zhi Feilübin huaqiao (Overseas Chinese in the Philippines in the 16th Century) (Hong Kong: Xinya yanjiusuo dongnanya yanjiushi, 1963).
3 Nakajima Gakushō, “Jū roku seikimatsu no Fukken—firipin—Kyūshū bōeki,” (Fujian in the late 16th century—Philippines—Kyushu trade), Shien (Journal of History) 114 (2007): 55–92.
4 Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai: Higo Katō-shi-ryō ni okeru kankei shiryō no shōkai” (The state of foreign trade during the Toyotomi era—an introduction to historical sources on relations in the Higo Kato collection), in Chiiki-shi kenkyū to rekishi kyōiku―Moriyama Tsuneo kyōju taikan kinenronbunshū, edited by Festschrift Committee on the Retirement of Professor Moriyama Tsuneo ed. (Studies of Regional History and History Education: Festschrift on the Retirement of Professor Moriyama Tsuneo) (Tokyo, Japan: Kumamoto shuppan bunka kaikan, 1998), 747–87; “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai zokurun: Higo Katō-shi-ryō ni okeru kankei shiryō no shōkai o kanete” (The state of foreign trade during the Toyotomi era continued—an introduction to new historical sources on Higo Kato relations), in Sakoku Nihon to kokusai kōryū, edited by Yanai Kenji ed. (Isolated Japan and International Exchanges) vol. shang. (Tōkyō, Japan: Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 1988), 201–35; “Sasa. Katō-shi no seiji,” (Sasa: the politics of the Kato clan), in Shin Kumamoto-shi: Tsūshi hen daisanken, Kinsei yichi, vol. 1 chapter 1. (New history of Kumamoto city: general history vol. 3, modern 1) (Kumamoto, Japan: Kumamoto-shi, 2001), 37–194.
5 Most of the texts used in this paper related to Katō Kiyomasa are from (Japan) Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen go (Historical Sources for Kumamoto Prefecture: Middle Ages 5) (Kumamoto, Japan: Kumamotoken, 1966); Shin Kumamoto-shi: tsūshihen daisanken, kinsei yichi (Kumamoto, Japan: Kumamoto-shi, 2004). Below, in principle a note will be given when Kumamoto-ken shiriyō is used as a source. When a text lacks a date, a date will be inferred as indicated by (..).
6 Kobata Atsushi, Kingin bōekishi no kenkyū, 66–69. Takeno Yōko, Han bōekishi no kenkyū (Studies on the History of Foreign Trade) (Kyōto, Japan: Mineruva shobō, 1979), 132–5.
7 Kishino Hisashi, “'Rusun tsubo' bōeki no rekishi-teki yakuwari,” (The role of history in the 'Luzon jar' trade), Kirishitan kenkyū (Christian Research) 17 (1977): 147–53.
8 Seiichi Iwao, Nan'yo Nihonmachi no kenkyu (Studies on Japanese Communities in the Southern Ocean) (Tōkyō, Japan: Iwanami shoten, 1966), 276–277. Nakajima Gakushō, “Jū roku seikimatsu no Fukken”: 65–7.
9 Izawa Minoru, Daikōkai jidai yawa (Stories From the Great Seafaring Age) (Tōkyō, Japan: Iwanami shoten, 1977), 140–2. Nakajima Gakushō, “Jū roku seikimatsu no Fukken”: 65–7.
10 Seiichi Iwao, “Bunroku 2-nen (1593) Ruson chōkan-ate toyotomi hideyoshi no shokan ni tsuite” (Toyotomi Hideyoshi's letters to the chief of Luzon in the Bunroku second year (1593)), Komonjo kenkyū (Studies in Ancient Texts) 25 (1986): 1–13.
11 If no special note is made, the years and months in this paper follow the lunar calendar. Even though years mostly follow the Western calendar, the Japanese and Chinese years are also added as needed, but when the lunar calendar is used, the Western year indicated corresponds to the lunar calendar year. For example, in the twelfth month of the Bunroku second year, even though this corresponds to the first and second months of 1594 in the Western calendar, it will still be indicated as the twelfth month of 1593 (Bunroku second year).
12 On Katō Kiyomasa's invasion of Korea, see Kitajima Manji, Toyotomi Hideyoshi no chōsen shinryaku (Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Invasion of Korea) (Tōkyō, Japan: Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 1995); Katō kiyomasa: Chōsen shinryaku no jitsuzō (Katō Kiyomasa: The Truth Behind the Invasion of Korea) (Tōkyō, Japan: Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 2007).
13 On the logistics issues for Katō Kiyomasa's army, see Nakano Hitoshi, Toyotomi seiken no taigai shinryaku to Taikō kenchi (The Toyotomi Regime's Foreign Invasions and Taiko Land Survey) (Tōkyō, Japan: Azekura shobō, 1999), 145–79. Moriyama Tsuneo, “Katō-shi no seiji”: 90–6.
14 (Japan) Seze rongyi shi cang wenshu (Writings in the Shibusawa Eiichi collection), “(Tianzheng shijiu nian) bayue shisanri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the thirteenth day of the eighth month (Tenshō nineteenth year)), in Shin kumamoto shishi: shiriyōhen dai san kan: kinsei ichi, 25–8.
15 (Japan) Jiateng qingzheng wenshuji (Collected writings of Katō Kiyomasa), “Wenlu sannian siyue ershijiuri Jiateng qingzheng shuzhuang,” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the twenty-ninth day of the fourth month of the Bunroku third year), in Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen go: 247–55.
16 (Japan) Xiachuan wenshu (Writings of Shimokawa), “(Wenlu ernian) sanyue siri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the fourth day of the third month (Bunroku second year)), in Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen go: 414–6.
17 (Japan) Yuanfu Tailang shi cang wenshu (Writings in the Hara Tomitarō collection), “(Wenlu ernian) siyue shisiri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the fourteenth day of the fourth month (Bunroku second year)), in Shin kumamoto shishi: shiriyōhen dai san kan: kinsei ichi: 37–8.
18 Xiachuan wenshu, “Wenlu ernian bayue bari Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the eighth day of the eighth month of the Bunroku second year), in Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen go: 344–52.
19 See (Japan) Pianshan wenshu (Writings of Katayama), “(Qingzhang ernian) sanyue ershisanri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the twenty-third day of the third month (Keichō second year)), from Nakano Katarō, Katō kiyomasa den (Biography of Katō Kiyomasa) (Tōkyō, Japan: Ryūbunkan, 1909), 621–5.
20 Xiachuan wenshu, “Wenlu ernian bayue bari Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang.”
21 (Japan) Lijian Huxiong shi suocang wenshu (Writings in the collection of Kurima Torao), “(Wenlu ernian) shieryue liuri Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Kiyomasa's letter on the sixth day of the twelfth month (Bunroku second year)), cited from Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai zokurun”: 208–9. Even though there are no records of the year in which the document was issued, as Moriyama's scholarship on p. 209 of this paper shows, based on the content, there is no doubt it was written in 1593.
22 See Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai zokurun”: 214–215. On the Port of Ikura, see Nakajima Gakushō, “Ariakekai no Fukken-kai-shō–higo ikura no Akito haka o megutte,” (The Ariake Sea Fujian traders—on the Ming tombs in Higo Ikura) Nihon rekishi (Japanese History) 736 (2009): 38–54.
23 Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai zokurun”: 217.
24 Dubian cuifeng shi suocang wenshu (Writings in the Watanabe Suihou collection), “(Qingzhang ernian) jiuyue jiuri Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Kiyomasa's letter on the ninth day of the ninth month (Keichō second year)), from ibid.: 233.
25 Ibid.: 212–8.
26 Jiateng qingzheng wenshuji, “Wenlu sannian siyue ershijiuri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang”: 247–55.
27 Moriyama Tsuneo, “Katō-shi no seiji”: 71–2.
28 Pablo Pastels, Matsuda Kiichi trans., Jūroku jūshichiseiki nihon supein kōshōshi (16th–17th Century Japan: History of Relations With Spain) (Tōkyō, Japan: Taishūkan Shoten, 1994), 10–1.
29 Antonio de Morga, Kanki Keizō, Yanai Kenji trans., Firipin shotōshi (The Philippine Islands) (Tōkyō, Japan: Iwanami shoten, 1966), 61.
30 Iezusu-Kai to Nihon (The Jesuits and Japan), trans. & annotated, Takase Kōichirō (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1981), v. 1, 105.
31 Francesco Carletti, My Voyage Around the World, Herbert Weinstock trans. (New York, NY: Pantheon Books, 1964), 113.
32 Antonio de Morga, “Report of Conditions in the Philippines,” in The Philippine Islands, edited by Emma H. Blair and James A. Robertson, vol. 10, June 8, 1598 ed. (Cleveland, Ohio: A.H. Clark, 1903–1909), 84–5.
33 Antonio de Morga, Firipin shotōshi: 391.
34 Izawa Minoru, Daikōkai jidai yawa: 140.
35 For conversions of currency and units of measurement from the period, this paper mainly refers to Boxer, The Great Ship From Amacon: 335–42.
36 Nakano Hitoshi, Toyotomi seiken no taigai shinryaku to Taikō kenchi: 68–102.
37 Sasaki Minoru ed., Hinawajū no denrai to gijutsu (The transmission of matchlock rifle technology) (Tokyo, Japan: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2003): 191–201.
38 Fukukawa Ittoku, “Bungo Ōtomo-shi to Teppō ni tsuite” (On the Bungo Otomo clan and steel guns), Nihon rekishi, 353 (1977): 81–5.
39 Sasaki Minoru ed., Hinawajū no denrai to gijutsu: 188–91.
40 (Ming) Ming Taizu, Daming lü (in Huang Zhangjian ed., Mingdai lüli huibian (Collected Ming laws and regulations) vol. xia, Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo, 1977), vol. 15, “Binglü san, guanjin, sichu waijing ji weijin xiahai” (Military laws 3, ports, secretly going abroad and violating the sea ban).
41 (Ming) Ming Taizu, Wenxing tiaoli (Penal regulations) (in Huang Zhangjian ed., Mingdai lüli huibian vol. xia, (Taipei, Taiwan: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan lishi yuyan yanjiusuo, 1977), “Binglü guanjin, sichu waijing ji weijin xiahai” (Military laws and ports, secretly going abroad and violating the sea ban): 689.
42 (Ming) Shen Shixiu, et al., (Wanli) Daming huidian (Collected statutes of the great Ming) (Taipei, Taiwan: Xinwenfeng chuban gongsi, 1976), vol. 132, “Bingbu shiwu, zhenshu qi, gezhen tongli, haijin” (Ministry of War 15, defense 7, rules for all defenses, sea trade ban): 1879.
43 Kishino Hisashi, Seiōjin no Nihon hakken: Zabieru rainichizen Nihon jōhō no kenkyū (The Western European Discovery of Japan—A Study of Japanese Intelligence Before the Arrival of Xavier in Japan) (Tokyo, Japan: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 1989), 122.
44 Zheng Shungong, Riben yijian: qionghe huahai (Mirror to Japan: all the rivers and seas), vol. 2 (Osaka, Japan: Ryōgarin, 1996), “Qiyong” (Instruments): 15a (total page 203).
45 (Ming) Zheng Ruoceng, Chouhai tubian (Illustrated book on maritime defense) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2007), vol. 9 “Dajiekao: qinhuo wang zhi” (Investigation of a great victory: capturing Wang Zhi): 619.
46 (Ming) Wan Biao, Haikou yi (On Sea Bandits) (Tainan, Taiwan: Zhuangyan wenhua shiye youxian gongsi, 1995) part one: 38.
47 (Ming) Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao (Writings From the Hall of Sincerity and Harmony: Governing Fujian) (Tokyo, Japan: National Archives collection Ming Wanli twenty-second year [1594] edition), “Shu” (Memorials), “Shutong haijin shu” (Memorial on opening the maritime ban): 26a.
48 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Gongyi” (Official correspondence), “Chayi haijin xingbu zhengsi” (On the maritime ban and Provincial Administration Commission): 22b–23a.
49 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Shu,” “Shutong haijin shu”: 281–28b.
50 Oka Mihoko, Shonin to senkyoshi nanban boeki no sekai (Merchants and Missionaries: The World of Nanban Trade) (Tokyo, Japan: Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, 2010), 99–104.
51 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Shu,” “Qing jichu woqiu shu” (Memorial requesting dealing with the Japanese leaders), 73a–75a.
52 (Ming) Song Yingchang, Tiangong kaiwu (Exploitation of the Works of Nature) (Yangzhou, China: Jiangsu guangling guji chubanshe, 1997), vol. xia, “Wujin: qian” (Five metals: lead): 369; “Jiabing: xiaoshi” (Excellent soldiers: saltpeter): 402.
53 Song Yingchang, Jinglüe fuguo yaobian (Compilation on the Military Commissioner Recovering the Country) (Taipei, Taiwan: Huawen shuju, 1968), vol. 1, “Xi Jizhou Miyun Tianjin Shuiping sidao” (On the four circuits of Jizhou, Miyun, Tianjin, and Shuiping): 82.
54 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Shu,” “Shutong haijin shu”: 27a.
55 Tan Qian, Quogue (Discussions of the State) (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1958), vol. 76, Wanli twenty-first year eighth month renwu entry: 4706.
56 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Gongyi,” “Haijin tiaoyue xingfen shou zhangnan dao” (Protecting the maritime prohibition in Zhangnan): 12b.
57 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Gongyi,” “Jinzhi sifan wochuan xingge dao” (Prohibiting smuggling and Japanese ships): 4b–5a; “Jina sifan xing fenshou Zhangnan dao” (Seizing ships and protecting Zhangnan): 21b–22a.
58 Santiago de Vera, “Letter from Santiago de Vera to Felipe II,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 6, June 26, 1587: 302.
59 G.P. Dasmarinas, et. al., “The Second Embassy to Japan,” in The Philippine Islands, vol. 9, April-May, 1593: 51.
60 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Gongyi,” “Chayang fanchuan xingyu tuiguan” (Governing judges inspecting foreign ships): 93b.
61 Pacheo Maldonado, “Letter to Felipe II,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 3, June, 1575?: 299.
62 Pedro de Rojas, “Letter of Pedro de Rojas to Felipe II,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 6, June 30, 1686: 269–170.
63 Felipe II and others, “Measures regarding trade with China,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 6, June 17–November 15, 1586: 287.
64 Melchor de Baecha, et. al., “Investigations at Manila concerning trade with Macan,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 8, May 23-November 19, 1591: 195.
65 G.P. Dasmarinas, “Three letters from Governor Dasmarinas to Felipe II,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 8, June 20, July 6, 1592: 270.
66 Juan Gil, Hirayama Atsuko trans., Idarugo to samurai: 16, 17-seiki no Isupania to Nihon (Hidalgo and samurai: 16th–17th century Spain and Japan) (Tōkyō, Japan: Hōsei Daigaku Shuppankyoku, 2002), 50–53.
67 Ibid.: 61–113.
68 Pedro Chirino, Relation de las Islas Filipinas, in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 12, 1604: 192.
69 Kobata Atsushi, Kingin bōekishi no kenkyū: 1–5, 55–70, 101–18.
70 Kobata Atsushi, Nihon kahei ryūtsūshi (The history of Japanese currency circulation) (Tōkyō, Japan: Tōkō Shoin, 1943), 383–412.
71 Peng Xinwei, Zhongguo huobi shi (A history of Chinese currency) (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1958), “Mingdai jinyin bijia biao” (Price comparison table of Ming gold and silver): 714. Kobata Atsushi, Kingin bōekishi no kenkyū: 1–4. Richard von Glahn, Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 128, fig. 4.
72 Koichiro Takase, Kirishitan jidai taigai kankei no kenkyu (Studies on Foreign Relations in the Christian Era) (Tokyo, Japan: Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 1994): 243.
73 Kobata Atsushi, Nihon kahei ryūtsūshi: 441–5. von Glahn, Fountain of Fortune: 129–30.
74 Koichiro Takase, Kirishitan jidai taigai kankei no kenkyu: 554–8.
75 Ibid.: 242–4.
76 Carletti, My Voyage around the World, 139–40.
77 Oka Mihoko, “Nanban bōeki no kōzō to yushutsunyū-hin” (The structure of the nanban trade and imports and exports): 99–104.
78 Kobata Atsushi, Kingin bōekishi no kenkyū: 121–35.
79 de Morga, “Report of Conditions in the Philippines,” in The Philippine Islands, ed. Blair and Robertson, vol. 10, June 8, 1598: 84.
80 Xiachuan wenshu, “(Wenlu sannian) eryue erri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the second day of the second month (Bunroku third year)), in Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen go: 354–357.
81 (Japan) “(Wenlu sannian) eryue ershiyiri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the twenty-first day of the second month (Bunroku third year)), from Hideyuki Fujiwara, “Katō Kiyomasa Chōsen-jin shojō ni tsuite,” (Katō Kiyomasa's letters on Korea) Waseda daigaku toshokan kiyō (Bulletin of the Waseda University Library) 45, (1998): 43–50.
82 Jiateng Qingzheng wenshu ji, “Wenlu sannian siyue ershijiuri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the twenty-ninth day of the fourth month of the Bunroku third year), in Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen go: 247–55.
83 Xiachuan wenshu, “(Wenlu sannian) shiyiyue ershiyiri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the twenty-first day of the eleventh month (Bunroku third year)), in Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen go: 409–11.
84 Kitajima Manji, Katō kiyomasa: Chōsen shinryaku no jitsuzō: 132–8.
85 Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai”: 747–77; “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai zokurun”: 204–7, 218–23.
86 (Japan) Shancheng dengchiyuan wenshu (Writings from Yamashiro Tōji-in), “(Wenlu wunian) qiyue shiliuri Shangangdao Emi shuzhuang” (Yamaoka Dōami's letter from the sixteenth day of the seventh month (Bunroku fifth year)), from Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai”: 748.
87 (Japan) Changqishi suocang wenshu (Writings in the Nagasaki collection), “(Wenlu wunian) runqiyue shiwuri Jiateng Qingzheng shuzhuang” (Katō Kiyomasa's letter on the fifteenth day of the seventh intercalary month (Bunroku fifth year)), in Kumamoto-ken shiriyō: chūsei hen san (Kumamoto, Japan: Kumamotoken, 1963), 42–4. Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai”: 748–9.
88 Matsuda Kiichi, Toyotomi Hideyoshi to nanbanjin (Toyotomi Hideyoshi and the Nanban) (Tokyo, Japan: Chobunsha, 2001): 219–93.
89 “Keichō gan'nen katō kiyomasa yori Firipin shotō chōkan ni okurishi shokan” (Writings from Katō Kiyomasa to the governor of the Philippines in the Keichō first year), in (Japan) Murakami Naojirō, Ikoku ōfuku shokanshū (Collected Works on Foreign Travels) (Tōkyō, Japan: Sunnansha, 1929): 82–4.
90 Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai zokurun”: 222–3; “Katō-shi no seiji”: 154.
91 Juan Gil, Idarugo to samurai: 60–1. Francisco Tello's letters and translations of Katō Kiyomasa's letters are kept in the Sevilla Archivo General de Indias (A.G.I., Filip.6, 8 n. 140).
92 de Morga, “Report of Conditions in the Philippines,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 10, June 8, 1598: 84.
93 Francisco Tello et al., “Report of Conditions in the Philippines,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 10, July 1–2, 1599: 231.
94 Dubian cuifeng shi suocang wenshu, “(Qingzhang ernian) jiuyue jiuri Qingzheng shuzhuang,” from Moriyama Tsuneo, “Toyotomi-ki kaigai bōeki no ikkeitai zokurun”: 223–4.
95 Nakajima Gakushō, “Porutogaru hito nihonhatsu raikō sairon” (Another discussion on the first Portuguese arrival in Japan), Shien 146, (2009): 61–2.
96 Ibid.: 58–66.
97 Okamoto Yoshitomo, Jūrokuseiki nichiō kōtsūshi no kenkyū (Studies on the History of 16th Century Transportation Between Japan and Europe) (Tōkyō, Japan: Rokkōshobō, 1942): 361–514. Boxer, The Great Ship from Amacon, 21–35.
98 (Japan) Kagoshima Prefecture Restoration Historiographical Institute ed., Kyūki zatsuroku: kōhen yichi (Assorted Old Records: Later Volumes 1) (Kagoshima, Japan: Kagoshimaken, 1980) vol. 6, document no. 685, 692, 693: 312–5. Kage Toshio, Sengoku daimyō no gaikō to toshi ryūtsū: Bungo Ōtomo-shi to Higashi Ajia sekai (The Diplomatic Cities and Communications of the Sengoku Daimyo—the Bungo Ōtomo Clan and World of East Asia) (Kyōto, Japan: Shibunkaku Shuppan, 2006), 248–55. This ship's log contains “silver, deer hide, and gifts from Nanban states.” Deer hide was one of the main goods shipped from the Philippines to Japan at the time, so it is highly likely that the “Nanban states” referred to the Philippines here. See Okada Akio, Kato Eiichi ed., Nichio kosho to nanban boeki (Japan-Europe Relations and the Nanban Trade) (Kyōto, Japan: Shibunkaku Shuppan, 1983): 41–8.
99 (Japan) Sesshin shinkō, Jushi (Odes) (Kyoto, Japan: Ryoun-in), “Tianzheng qinian shiyiyue Daojin Yijiu shuzhuang chao” (Shimazu Yoshihisa's letter in the eleventh month of the Tenshō seventh year), from Kage Toshio, Ajian sengoku daimyō Ōtomo-shi no kenkyū (Studies on the Asian sengoku daimyo Ōtomo clan): 25–6.
100 Ibid.: 27–8.
101 (Japan) “Fayingong yu xianluo guozhu shu'an” (Letters between Hoinko and the Thai king), from Kobata Atsushi, “Matsuura-ka bunko no kaigai kōtsū shiryō ni tsuite” (Sources on foreign transportation in the Matsuura collection), in Kobata Atsushi, Nihon keizaishi no kenkyū (Studies on the History of the Japanese Economy) (Kyōto, Japan: Shibunkaku Shuppan, 1978): 613–4.
102 Maehira Fusaaki, “16–17 seiki ni okeru Ryūkyū kaiiki to bakuhansei shihai” (The Ryukyu region and bakuhan system domination in the 16th–17th centuries), Nipponshi kenkyū (Research in Japanese History) 500 (2004): 53–60. Takashi Uezato, “Ko Ryūkyū, Naha no 'Wajin' kyoryūchi to kan Shinakai sekai” (Ancient Ryukyu, Naha's “Japanese” settlement, and the world of the China Sea), Shigaku zasshi 114, no. 7 (2005): 22–7.
103 Maldonado, “Letter to Felipe II,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 3, Juan, 1575?: 299.
104 Okada Akio, Kato Eiichi ed., Nichio kosho to nanban boeki: 3–37.
105 Gaspar de Ayala, “Letter from Gaspar De Ayala to Felipe II,” in The Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson ed., vol. 7, July 15, 1589: 126.
106 Xu Fuyuan, Jinghetang ji: Fumin gao, “Shu,” “Qing jichu woqiu shu”: 74b–75a.
107 Calambac (kalambak in Malay) was a high-end agarwood produced in Champa that was called jiananxiang and qinanxiang in China and kyara or kyaraki in Japan. See Yamada Kentarō, Tōa kōryō shi kenkyū (Studies in the History of East Asian Spices) (Tōkyō, Japan: Chūō kōron bijutsu shuppan, 1976), 201–9, 380–9. As for which fragrant wood the Japanese calls shiratago in the text, it is still not clear.
108 As for the Liukiu here, Carletti points out that Japanese merchants obtained deerskin and honey there, and it is mentioned later in the text; the residents there were naked and still not “civilized.” Based on this, Liukiu must not refer to the Ryukyu Kingdom, but rather Taiwan (little Ryukyu). See Carletti, My Voyage Around the World: 131.
109 Ibid.: 129–31.
110 Ibid.: 132.
111 Seiichi Iwao, Shinpan shuinsen bōekishi no kenkyū (New Studies on the History of Seal Ship Trade) (Tokyo, Japan: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2013), book 2, chapter 5, “Shuinsen no tokō-chi” (Destinations of the seal ships): 149–76.
112 Carletti, My Voyage Around the World: 135–9.
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Nakajima Gakusho
Nakajima Gakusho is associate professor in the Department of History, Faculty of Humanities, Kyushu University.