Editorial

‘One of the great European nations is slowly disappearing. And this enormous, almost unbelievable event is occurring without anyone noticing’ [1]. Numbers support Milan Kundera’s 1984 prophesy: the 1989 census recorded a Ukrainian population of 51.5 million; before the war with Russia, it was about 45 million; the present population of free Ukraine is less than 30 million. But the soul contends otherwise.

In a forest outside Izium, Ukrainian writer Victoria Amelina recorded the exhumation of compatriots tortured and executed by the Russian occupiers, including poet and author Volodymyr Vakulenko – his body was in grave 319. Victoria also looked for, and found, his diary. In May 2022, accepting the posthumous award of the Prix Voltaire on his behalf, she told of the hundreds of Ukrainian writers and cultural leaders who had been killed for choosing to be Ukrainian – but there was now hope that the world would hear the last words of truth from Volodymyr Vakulenko… In less than two months, Victoria herself was killed by a Russian missile [2].

Ukrainians are not just doughty soldiers. Ukrainian scientists and scholars are working for a better future. From their cellars and bomb shelters, whenever the power is with them, more than two hundred have written for us in their third or fourth language. Manuscripts burn, and the aggressors first of all burn books in libraries and textbooks in schools and colleges [3,4]: but this Ukraine monograph No 2 safeguards our authors’ words, no matter how long the war lasts or how it ends.

What do our authors tell us? First, of destruction – aimed at their culture which blossomed in partnership with Byzantium but which goes back to the fabulous Amazons and claims equal respect amongst the nations of Europe. Dunayev et al. in Wartime destruction. Regional assessment of damage to Ukraine’s infrastructure, March 2022-June 2023 and Anatolii and Lesia Kucher in War loss and damage to soil resources: Towards sustainable land management begin the sordid assessment of financial and economic losses that must be recouped. Victoriia Shevdun et al. in Prioritisation. ABC analysis of environmental pollution during the Russian invasion, grapple with prioritising responses to the many issues that the war has brought or exacerbated. At the same time, Bin Zhang and Sheripzhan Nadyrov in Impact of the Russian-Ukrainian war on the European economy in 2022 review geopolitics and the impacts of the war on a wider European economy that had grown dependent on Russian energy.

Goussous et al. in Ukraine’s architectural heritage in trust: challenges and strategies and Tsyrfa et al. in Issues of preservation and restoration of historical monuments in the occupied territories consider the constraints and complexities of preserving architectural heritage and historical monuments in face of cultural genocide. There is an international dimension to all this tragedy. Moo-jin Jeong et al. in Loss and damage of Ukraine’s cultural heritage. Actions of the Russian Federation today compared to Germany during World War II show mirror images of Germany’s invasion under Hitler. There is a parallel between the activities of Russia today and the looting of museums and libraries and destruction of monuments by German forces within living memory.

In 1948, the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide proclaimed never again. Early drafts specified ‘prohibiting the use of the language of the group in daily intercourse, in schools or in the press’ and ‘destruction or preventing the use of libraries, museums, schools, historical monuments, places of worship or other cultural objects of the group’. But Stalin – who had been doing precisely that – got cultural genocide deleted from the text.

Ukraine has much rebuilding to accomplish. Jinsheng Zheng et al. advocate Using the Warsaw reconstruction plan to rebuild Ukrainian cities, but bricks and mortar will be the easy part. Olga Khodakivska et al. see Echoes of the Holodomor under Russian occupation. Systematic restrictions on access to food have created hunger, increased mortality, social breakdown and personal insecurity; many victims experience post-traumatic stress disorder. Relating all this to the sufferings of the Eastern European countries that were at war at the end of the 20th century, Limaj et al. examine The trauma of war: Implications for future generations in Ukraine. This account appeals for psychological help to prevent transmission of the trauma to future generations.

Ukraine’s power stations and electricity grid have been struck relentlessly – and repaired heroically. Shahini et al. in Renewable energy opportunities in Ukraine in the context of blackouts argue that renewable energy sources will provide a more stable, independent and decentralised supply. Mikhailo and Natalia Mushtrak et al. demonstrate that one of these renewables could be biodiesel made from technical animal fats; MZDP Ltd. already has a mobile plant up and running. Europe’s biggest nuclear power plant was occupied by Russian troops at the outset of the invasion. Under duress, the Ukrainian staff accomplished a cold shut-down but the site hosts ten times as much nuclear material as the ill-fated Chornobyl nuclear power plant and the occupiers have all but severed the electric power and cooling water essential to avoid a nuclear catastrophe. Amanzhol et al. consider Possible scenarios for future events at the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant; and Ismayilzada et al. examine Environmental consequences of the Zaporizhzhia NPP situation.

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the birth of independent states with ideas of their own brought dramatic changes in the 1980s. In The impact of war on the fields of Ukraine, Nasibov et al. remind us that one of those independent ideas was a free market in land, which had hardly been established before war decimated the cultivated area, destroyed infrastructure, contaminated soil and water, and disrupted global supply lines. The fledgeling land market still operates, hesitatingly, but, in the fog of war, it might be easier for outsiders to see the big picture. In Europe’s Brazil? How Ukraine could transform Europe’s role in the global food supply, Keulertz et al. foresee a Ukraine within the European Union. On a land area of 60 million ha, 32 million ha is cropland; it could easily be 40 million ha which would add 25% of new cropland to the EU, making it the world’s biggest breadbasket. And 65% of Ukraine is chernozem, the best soil in the world for arable crops that underpin the global food system and succour water-short economies in Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. Most food bowls are now affected by climate change but Ukraine’s rich soils with careful investment and de-mining and clean-up activities can secure the future for the world food supply. Clever investment in post-manual, AI-driven cropping is advised. As Lenin remarked: ‘wheat is the ultimate currency’.

Mulvey et al. bring us back to the big issue before the war with Hidden in plain sight. Global heating, the small water cycle, and the social contract. Greenhouse gases do not generate heat. Bare ground is the furnace: vegetation the air-conditioning. Control of greenhouse gas emissions is necessary and urgent but will not be enough to arrest global heating and does nothing for the water cycle. Regenerative agriculture combats both hazards by eschewing the plough and bare soil, adopting diverse crop rotations, and creating windbreaks and wetlands. The war provides an opportunity as well as urgent need for a new social contract.

Our scientists propose practical actions. Romanova et al. argue for Soil monitoring infrastructure in response to war. They stipulate legislative support, laboratories, a soil information system, and finance – but, funds must be sought abroad. Visiting scientists participating in the assessment of battlefields will certainly win experience applicable worldwide. On Chemical analysis of the state of Ukrainian soils in the combat zone, Biyashev et al. note prior degradation – but the war makes things much worse with various toxins several times beyond permissible limits. Shebanina et al. present specific data on Ukrainian soil pollution before and after the Russian invasion; e.g. a 200% increase in cadmium contamination in Kharkiv region, and a 139% and 156% increase in oil spills in Kherson and Zaporizhzhia.

Thanks to experience of soil contamination by heavy industry and the 1986 Chornobyl incident, Ukrainian agronomists already have expertise in Reclamation of derelict mine land by simply growing crops. Oleksandr Mytsyk and colleagues report on 50 years of field experimentation to rehabilitate derelict mine land that is equally applicable to military minefields; and in Phytoremediation of heavy metal contamination by perennial legumes. Razanov et al. report on uptake of pollutants by perennial legumes and their content in following crops. Of the legumes tested, sainfoin exhibits the greatest bioaccumulation but all the studied species are effective in optimising the soil environment and accumulating heavy metals in their biomass, as well as the less-well-understood conversion of mobile to immobile forms. Snitynskyi et al. present the special case of Phytoremediation of ¹³⁷Cs-contaminated sod-podzolic soil in Northern Polissia by white sweet clover. Tracts of Europe were contaminated with radionuclides by the Chornobyl accident; in Ukraine, two million hectares were removed from agriculture and¹³⁷Cs, with a half-life of 30 years, is still with us. Sweet clover accumulates caesium in its biomass but, at the same time, produces nectar and pollen with a safely low level of the radionuclides; so, this culture is safe for beekeeping in the exclusion zone.

Kabylda et al. highlight atmospheric chemistry in Trajectory of air quality in Ukraine. Burning fossil fuels, application of fertilisers, and stockbreeding have greatly increased emissions of reactive nitrogen that compromise air, soil and water quality; sulphate aerosols also influence the climate by scattering solar radiation, leading to surface cooling, cloud formation and precipitation. On top of this, fierce forest fires, burning of oil and ammunition depots, and destruction of urban and industrial areas have spread hazardous combustion products far and wide. Combined managerial, regulatory and practical efforts are needed to stabilise the situation, beginning with a unified national system of monitoring air quality and improved methodology to assess the damage. Medinets et al. show the way with Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and sulphur in the Dniester catchment: the impact of war at a glance. During 2021/22 economic disruption and population displacement cut total N deposition by 35% from pre-war levels within the Lower Dniester region. By contrast, influx of refugees and business relocation to the middle and upper parts of the basin resulted in greater N deposition, underscoring the interaction of local and regional factors and the absolute need for peace as a prerequisite for reducing hazardous emissions.

On water resources, Chushkina et al. investigate a failed river restoration project by analysis of water and silt deposits in Loss of small rivers across the steppe: climate change or the hand of man? The most obvious shortcoming of the riverbed clearing operations was the dumping of the dredged material on the riverbank, whence it washed back into the channel; but in the absence of hydraulic connection along the erstwhile river channel, the river flow has not returned. Vyshnevskyi and Shevchuk analyse The destruction of the Kakhovka dam and future of the Kakhovske reservoir. Sabotage of the dam eliminated one-third of Ukraine’s fresh water reserves and terminated the operation of irrigation canals, industrial and drinking water supplies across southern Ukraine. But to recreate the enormous reservoir for the needs of a population that will be only half or, even, one fifth of what it was, and without the former demands of heavy industry, is not obviously the best use of scarce human and financial resources. Hapich et al. consider Prospects of alternative water supply for the population of Ukraine during wartime and post-war reconstruction, reviewing the structure of water supply and wastewater discharge within Ukraine’s river basins, and the prospects for the construction of wells to provide groundwater. Hapich and Onopriienko assess Ecology and economics of irrigation in the south of Ukraine following destruction of the Kakhovka reservoir. At its peak, irrigation extended over 2.6 million ha; but 50−70 years on, systems are run down and the actually irrigated area had contracted to about 300 000 ha in 2022. Currently, irrigated grain crops are uneconomic; with good weather, rapeseed and sunflower break-even; vegetables and soft fruits are profitable but demand substantial initial investment and generate income only after several years. Novitskyi et al. report on Loss of fisheries from destruction of the Kakhovka reservoir. Eleven thousand tonnes of fish and almost all spawning and feeding areas were lost. The annual catch, worth $5.4 million per year, comprised one quarter of the freshwater fish in the Ukrainian market.

Rainfed crops remain the mainstay of Ukrainian agriculture. Pichura et al. focus on rain in Water balance of winter wheat following different precursors on the Ukrainian steppe. Precursors can make a big difference to the water supply of the main crops; e.g., water balancing in a winter wheat crop with peas as a precursor was 3–9 times greater than with a cereal or sunflower as a precursor, and productivity 1.4–1.6 times higher. Tkachuk et al. consider Choice of representative period of observations of soil water regime under crops, making use of integrated difference, calculation of soil moisture reserves of different repeatability by series of observations of different duration, and analysis of deviations of average values over different periods up to the entire growing season.

Agronomists and soil scientists follow-up outstanding contributions to our Ukraine monograph No 1 [5], demonstrating a robust and broadly based understanding of soil fertility. Hnativ et al. in Lviv discuss Stoichiometry of arable black soil on the Ukrainian Western Forest Steppe: the stocks of major nutrients, and stoichiometry under arable crops receiving conventional NPK fertilisation and an unfertilised control. Total carbon stocks increase only with parallel increases in total N, P, Ca and Mg; likewise, total N increases along with parallel increases in total Ca and Mg, P and Ca, P and C; in short, the system cannot hold on to nutrients applied in excess of the harmonic stoichiometry. In the same vein, Miroshnychenko et al. in Kharkiv examine Current trends of N:P ratio in Chernozem under different fertiliser systems based on long-term field experiments. The N:P ratio decreased significantly post-2000, compared to 1971–1999: two-fold without fertilisation, 1.8-2.7-fold with an N background, and 3.6-fold with an NPK background; and changes of crop yield were inversely related to the soil’s N:P ratio. Possible reasons for the N:P decrease might be drier summers and the high crop demand for nitrogen. Baliuk et al. consider Changes in the properties of Chernozem soils under management and strategic approaches to restore their fertility. The quality of soils has been debased under the plough; e.g., the content of soil organic matter is now only 20% of what it was in Dokuchaev’s day. A sustainable agricultural system requires: а) effective soil protection programmes; b) soil monitoring with modern equipment and methods, creation and maintenance of up-to-date soil maps and databases; с) mandatory regulation of human impacts on the environment; d) maintaining soil cover and zero tillage to stabilise soil organic carbon and prevent nutrient depletion.

Several problems might be solved at once by Conservation Agriculture, drastically reducing tillage and adopting a scientifically based crop structure and diverse crop rotation. This is scrutinised in two articles by Shevchenko et al. in Control of weeds and sunflower broomrape (Orobanche cumana Wallr) in sunflower crops by crop rotation and tillage and Tillage effects on soil physical properties and maize phenology. Comparing weediness and broomrape infestation under rotations with sunflower comprising from 12.5% to 100%, broomrape infestation was most severe in the short winter wheat – sunflower rotation and in continuous sunflower, with 16% and 32% of the crop affected. Under the plough, infestation was 1.2–1.6 times greater than under disking and no-till. The best oil seed yields (2.92 and 2.95t/ha) were achieved by 8- and 5-field rotations; the lowest (1.49–2.21t/ha) by short rotations and continuous sunflower.

Kharytonov et al. examine Application of flocculated sewage sludge for growing Miscanthus on post-mining lands, i.e. on raw subsoil. Yield depends on the amount of sludge applied; the highest yield (12.9t/ha) achieved by adding 60t/ha of flocculated sludge. Among macronutrients, N is more actively absorbed than P and K; cobalt, nickel and cadmium do not accumulate in biomass but chromium does; and the proportion of incombustible residue increases when sludge is applied at high doses. So, application of 20t/ha flocculated sludge appears to be optimal for ensuring environmental safety and suitability as a fuel. Kharytonov et al. also investigate Photosynthetic activity of sweet sorghum fertilised by sewage sludge. Sludge application increases photosynthetic activity and reduces sensitivity to adverse environmental factors; flocculated sludge was more beneficial than the standard product, particularly at the early stages of development; the optimal dose was 40–60t/ha. Finally in this section, Lutsenko et al. in Production of edible lecithin from sunflower-oil refining waste consider technology for defatting the spent meal from extraction of sunflower oil. Using isopropyl alcohol at 60°C enhances the yield of valuable phospholipids.

Finally, we come full circle from war on people and their culture to the collateral damage. Mammadov et al. examine collateral ecocide in The impact of war on Ukrainian flora and fauna, which encompasses pollution by oil, ammonia, heavy metals and radioactive substances; the threats posed by seizure of nuclear power plants; and military occupation of biosphere reserves. Ecocide is the only word to describe the destruction of forests, steppes and wetlands; and the authors appeal to international organisations to help grapple with these issues and bring perpetrators to justice. Impacts of war on Ukrainian nature by Hartmane et al. reports violation of the Emerald network of nature reserves. Entire ecosystems have been lost; extensive fires, illegal logging, mechanical damage and chemical contamination of the soil cover are responsible for a critical loss of forest and degradation of the ecological and recreational functions of the reserves. Shahini et al. in Environmental consequences for the world of Russia’s war against Ukraine underscore the need to understand how the war is affecting ecosystems and find ways to mitigate the consequences.

Finally, three concluding articles demonstrate what can be achieved by patient research. Environmental and economic significance of big, old-growth trees by Chernevyy et al. reveals that at an age of more than 200 years, individual elite trees generate a huge increase in trunk volume, total phytomass and annual carbon accumulation (25–50 kg). Accordingly, each giant emits a great volume of oxygen (65–130 kg/yr) and water vapour (40–80t/yr); and its transpiration consumes 0.03–0.06GWh of energy which can cool a hectare × 30 m air layer by 0.027–0.053°C. By increasing the number of big, old-growth trees, forest productivity and the material and energy impact on the environment can be increased by 20–40%. But, fires significantly affect the structure and diversity of vegetation, and megafires – hard to control during war – facilitate big shifts. Post-fire recovery of vegetation in the Chornobyl Radiation and Ecological Biosphere Reserve by Zymaroieva et al. assesses the potential for natural regrowth of forest and post-fire succession after the catastrophic fires of 2020 that scorched 62 000 ha across the territory. Most of these areas have high potential for natural regeneration but, in the first instance, forest species are commonly replaced by weeds, some of them invasive.

The sobering analysis by Bennett of Atomic Blackmail – Russia-Ukraine war and Ramberg’s theory of vulnerability should modify the perceptions of risk.

Gentle reader, Ukraine, its people and its culture are far from disappearing, certainly not un-noticed. Rather, we might say with Anna Reid these fair and factual words. ’The “real” Ukraine, the Ukraine that has outlived armies and ideologies, lies in the countryside’. [6].¹

Notes

1. Throughout, we have used conventional Ukrainian transcription of place names from Chornobyl to Zaporizhzhia. We retain the Russian style of chernozem which is the conventional English rendering of this taxonomic unit in international soil classification.