On Bias in Autobiographical Recall: Retrospective Adjustments following Disconfirmed Expectations

Abstract

The hypothesis that people recall their behaviors and expectations in ways that increase their consistency with subsequent outcomes was tested. In a first study and a replication, Canadian students reported their preparations and expectations for an exam in an undergraduate course. Weeks later, after they had received their grades, they were unexpectedly asked to recall as accurately as possible their earlier reports. In Study 1, those whose actual grades were worse than anticipated recalled working less and expecting less satisfaction relative to their initial reports. Students whose actual grades were better than anticipated recalled expecting higher satisfaction relative to their initial reports. Similar results were obtained in Study 2. As over 90% of the students in the two studies did not receive their expected grades, these findings support the view that autobiographical recall may be generally reconstructive and potentially biased.