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Original Articles

The purest flame of the revolution: working class youth and left wing radicalism in Germany and Italy during the Great War

Pages 19-38 | Published online: 12 Feb 2009
 

Abstract

During the First World War, youth groups all over Europe went through a period of radicalisation that would later make them an important part of the international communist movement during the interwar years. This article describes the development of the socialist youth movements in Germany and Italy, comparing their organisation, practices and their relations to both the adult labour movement and the state. Though the two groups existed within very different political contexts, the article shows how they both allied themselves with the extreme left of the movement. Also, this radicalism was in both countries explicitly connected to the concept of youth as the vanguard of the revolution.

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Mauro Canali, Gert Sørensen and Gunvor Simonsen for their excellent advice during the preparation of this article.

Notes

Notes

1. ‘Die revolutionäre Jugend des Proletariats, sie war die heißeste, reinste Flamme der bisherigen deutschen Revolution; sie wird die glühendste, heligste, unköschbare Flamme der neuen Revolution sein, die da kommen muß und wird: der sozialen Revolution des deutschen, des Weltproletariats’, Die junge Garde no. 1, 27 November 1918, 2.

2. Gozzini, Alle origine del comunismo italiano; Cornell, Revolutionary Vanguard.

3. For a detailed account of the considerations of the SPD, see Kruse, Krieg und nationale Integration, 76–89.

4. This was a main reason behind the ‘conversion’ of Mussolini, for this reason the internal debates in the party are described in great detail in De Felice, Mussolini il rivoluzionario, 221–87.

5. The components of the name changed place several times during the century. After 1919 it was named FGIS and later again FSGI.

6. Martinelli, ‘I giovani’, 251–2.

7. L’Avanguardia, no. 347, 2 August 1914.

8. See Mangoni, ‘Gli intellettuali’.

9. Gozzini, Alle origine del comunismo italiano; Martinelli, ‘I giovani’.

10. For the situation of young workers before the war, see Hall, ‘Youth in Rebellion’; Linton, ‘Who has Youth has the Future’.

11. Reulecke, ‘Bürgerliche Sozialreformer’, 313.

12. On the cult of youth, see Koebner, ‘Mit uns zieht die neue Zeit’; Rüegg, Kulturkritik und Jugendkult.

13. Kruse, Krieg und nationale Integration, 180.

14. ‘Und so wuchs ich immer mehr ohne es zu wollen in die Gedankenwelt der sozialistischen Arbeiterbewegung hinein’, Bundesarchiv, Stiftung Archiv der Parteien und Massenorganisationen der DDR (SAPMO), SgY 30/1734/1, 38.

15. ‘Ich war stolz darauf, daß ich etwas besonderes wusste, und tat, was meine Schulkameraden nicht wussten und wissen durften’, Bundesarchiv, SAPMO, SgY 30/1734/1, 36.

16. ‘Domani ti strapperanno a mamma tua, alla buona vecchiarella; ed essa mentre si domanderà meravigliata, qual delitto tu abbia comesso, e perché ti debbono portar via, disperata ti coprirà di baci e lacrime … docrai abbandonare, tutto ciò che sino ad ora fu la tua vita’, Federazione Italiana Giovanile Socialista, Coscritto, ascolta!, 1.

17. Ibid., 1.

18. ‘… la formazione della artificiale sentimentalità pattriotica negli operai, che tende a sottragli agli effetti della propaganda rivoluzionaria, e a far loro dimenticare, scagliandoli ubbriachi contro il cosidetto straniero, la lotta contro contro il nemico vero, vicino, terribile, spietato, che si annida entro i confini della “patria” e si chiama “padrone”’, Federazione Italiana Giovanile Socialista, Il soldo al soldato, 9.

19. See Guazzaloca, ‘Due sistemi al vaglio di una crisi’, 27–8.

20. Gibelli, L’officina della guerra, 76–7.

21. Isnenghi and Rochat, La grande guerra, 296.

22. On the situation of police in Italy, see Dunnage, ‘Continuity in Policing’, 62.

23. Archivio di stato di Bari, Prefettura 2nd vers. busta 149, fasc. 9, from Sottoprefettura di Barletta to Minstero dell’Interno, 6 April 1916.

24. Generally Pubblica Sicurezza refers to all the branches of Italian law-enforcement; here, it refers to the political police.

25. On the relation between the anarchist movement and the authorities, see Pernicone, Italian Anarchism, 1864–1892, 147.

26. Isnenghi and Rochat, La grande guerra, 138–9. See also Gibelli, La grande guerra, 85–170. Italian, based in particular on the Tuscan dialect, differs widely from the dialects of both Northern and Southern Italy.

27. The final versions are available at the Federal Archives (Bundesarchiv) in Berlin, but many of the original manuscripts are at the Berlin local archives (Landesarchiv Berlin). They show some stylistic corrections, but very little in terms of content.

28. The following is based on 53 testimonies that specifically mentions the youth movement from the cohorts born approximately between 1890 and 1905, the collection itself, however, is much larger in scope.

29. Bundesarchiv, SAPMO, SgY 30/00082-1, 30–1.

30. Liebknecht, Militarismus und Antimilitarismus.

31. Bundesarchiv, Reichsministerium des Innern, Militaria, R1501/112255, Kriegszustand. Streiks und sonstige Unruhen während des Krieges 134 (18 January 1918).

32. The conference is described in detail in Luban, ‘Die Auswirkungen’.

33. ‘… die richtige, die feste Base der neuen Internationale kann nur die sozialistische Jugend bilden. Die Jugend – die Träger der Zukunft, die Jugend, die so wenig an die Vergangenheit hält und die alles vom kommenden Leben, von der Zukunft erwartet …. Die Jugend, deren Herz nicht mit der kleinbürgerlichen Gefühlsweise verpestet ist und deren Gehirn mit der Ideologie eines vergangenen Zeitalters nicht irregeführt werden kann …. Die frische, mutige, revolutionäre, opferwillige Arbeiterjugend, die vorwärts, immer vorwärtsdringt’, Jugend-Internationale, no. 1, 1915, 8.

34. For a detailed account of the Youth International in Switzerland, see Cornell, Revolutionary Vanguard, 1–43.

35. Jugend-Internationale, no. 9, 1917, 5–6.

36. Bundesarchiv, SAPMO, SgY 30/0251, 59–60.

37. For a documentation on Spartakus’ agitation during the war, see Meyer, Spartakus im Kriege.

38. For an example of these types of ‘radical milieus’, see Siegfried, Das radikale Milieu.

39. ‘Mühlheim-Ruhr war eine Garnisonstadt. Während des Krieges fuhren fast täglich Soldaten an die Front, oder neue kamen in die Kasernen. Die älteren Mädchen von uns suchten die Kasernen und die Villen, in denen die jungen Rekruten untergebracht waren, auf, machten sich mit ihnen bekannt und schäkerten abends an den Zäunen mit ihnen. … Wir hatten mit der Zeit auch einige Bekannten unter den Rekruten bekommen, die aus der Jugendbewegung kamen, denen wir die Materialien direkt übergaben. … Man versuchte, die Gärten abzusperren und uns zu verjagen, wenn wir mit den Soldaten sprachen. Konnte man das aber? Wo Kasernen sind, sind auch Mädel’, Bundesarchiv, SAPMO, SgY 30/0083, 12.

40. Ulrich, Die Augenzeugen, 78–9.

41. Bundesarchiv, SAPMO, SgY 30/1734/1, 48–50.

42. ‘La propaganda … si svolge nei pubblici ritrovi e nelle case, dove tutti possono liberamente parlare: così è più efficace e presenta minori pericoli di essere colpita dalla legge malgrado la continua vigilanza delle Autorità P.S.’, Archivio centrale dello stato, PS, cat. A5G, Prima guerra mondiale, busta 4, ‘Propaganda contro la guerra e rivoluzionaria in Italia dall’inizio della guerra’.

43. L’Avanguardia, no. 487, 15 April 1917.

44. Melograni, Storia politica, 332–4.

45. Archivio centrale dello stato, PS, cat. A5G, Prima guerra mondiale, busta 5, fasc. 7/52.

46. Archivio centrale dello stato, Casellario Politico Centrale (CPC), busta 1155, Bruno Cassinelli, ‘Telegramma-espresso di stato’, 28 August 1917.

47. Archivio centrale dello stato, CPC, busta 1155, Bruno Cassinelli, note labelled ‘Cassinelli Bruno’.

48. For the social and economic consequences in Italy and Germany, see Isnenghi and Rochat, La grande guerra, 297–307; Kocka, Klassengesellschaft im Krieg.

49. Reulecke, ‘Bürgerliche Sozialreformer’, 312.

50. Daniel, The War from Within, 152–71.

51. Stadelmaier, Zwischen Langemark und Liebknecht, 129–30.

52. ‘Die eigentliche Lösung der Schwierigkeiten kann nur in Massnahmen gesucht werden, die durch ihre gewinnende Gerechtigkeit einen Keil mitten in die Bewegung hineintreiben’, Bundesarchiv, Reichministerium des Innern, R 1501 Militaria, 188.

53. Bundesarchiv, Reichministerium des Innern, R 1501/12473 Landesverräter, 220–3.

54. ‘Wer der Jugend von 14 bis 18 Jahren einreden will, sie sei in der Lage, ein selbständiges Urteil über die schweren Schicksalsfragen abzugeben, die jetzt die Organisationen der erwachsenen Arbeiterschaft beschäftigen, und hier und da den stolzen Organisationsbau, der das Ergebnis einer halbjahrhundertlangen mühevollen Arbeit ist, in seinen Beständen zu gefährden, der treibt solchen Jugendbyzantinismus, den wir um der Jugend willen ablehnen müssen’, Arbeiter-Jugend, no. 13, 1916, 103.

55. Stadelmaier, Zwischen Langemark und Liebknecht, 32.

56. The files concerning the conflict between party leadership and youth organisation are in the Bundesarchiv, RY 11/II 107/6.

57. ‘Es zieht die Jugend, unsere Jugend hinaus auf den Kampfplatz, auf dem gekämpft wird um ihresgleichen. Ihre geistige Waffen, deren sie sich bedient, bürgen dafür, daß sie es nicht nötig hat, vor der bürgerlichen Jugend’pflege’ den Rückzug anzutreten’, Erinnerungen an die Heimat, no. 5, 15 March 1916.

58. For the polarisation of public life, see Ventrone, La seduzione totalitaria; for the military, see Forcella and Monticone, Plotone di esecuzione.

59. The main work on this is Ventrone, La seduzione totalitaria; see also Isnenghi and Rochat, La grande guerra, 327–30; Gibelli, L’officina della guerra, 82–4.

60. Isnenghi and Rochat, La grande guerra, 328.

61. Gozzini, Alle origine del comunismo italiano, 55; see also Melograni, Storia politica della grande guerra, 269–70 – Clara Zetkin, though known as a particularly dangerous subversive person, got her trial postponed for two years due to bad health.

62. Gozzini, Alle origine del comunismo italiano, 64.

63. Sergio, Dall’antipartito al partito unico, Chap. V.

64. L’Avanguardia, no. 381, 28 March 1915.

65. ‘I giovani hanno una vita intense, ricca di forze, sentono la vita come missione, e nel giornale non c’è nessuno riflesso di quest’anima tutta propria dei giovani’, L’Avanguardia, no. 388, 23 May 1915.

66. ‘Le organizzazioni operaie, i sindacati, le Camere del lavoro ai giovani. Perché siano ringiovinate esse stesse nella compagine e nelle finalità. Ai giovani e al socialismo che è ormai, noi riscriviamo fermamente, la giovezza e per ciò la vita del mondo’, L’Avanguardia, no. 409, 17 October 1915.

67. This development is described in detail in Cornell, Revolutionary Vanguard.

68. ‘Non degni di essere socialisti’, L’Avanguardia, no. 392, 20 June 1915, and no. 393, 27 June 1915.

69. Martinelli, ‘I giovani’, 271.

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