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Abstract
By the middle of the eighteenth century most navies operating in the Mediterranean had replaced their galley fleets with sailing navies. The Kingdom of Sardinia was one of the last to make the transition, acquiring its first square rigged ships in 1763. The galleys were decommissioned and a completely new naval administration was created. The existing officers and crew of the galley fleet were not qualified to command the new sailing ships and instead British naval officers were recruited to command the ships and train the Sardinian officers. Christopher Atkins was appointed to the largest ship, San Vittorio, and assumed overall command of the Sardinian navy. The first two ships were Spanish prizes purchased from the British Admiralty, but they proved to be of poor quality and were soon condemned. A new frigate was ordered from a Dutch yard in 1770 and another was built at the naval base of Villafranca in 1780. With a lack of skilled men or facilities to maintain them, these vessels also deteriorated quickly. It was only when Genoa was incorporated into the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1815 that it became possible to sustain a sailing navy. The role of the Sardinian navy in the eighteenth century was primarily to protect against Barbary privateers, which it managed up to a point. Despite its many difficulties the sailing navy was still able to achieve its rather limited goals.
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to the Hon. Editor for his continuous support and the burden he took on himself to edit my original paper and improve my English. I also wish to thank the anonymous referees for their helpful comments and suggestions and the SNR’s members who answered the query I posted on the Society website.
Notes
1 Ercole, Vascelli e fregate, 166–7.
2 Rossi, Storia della marina, 88–90.
3 Ilari et al, Bella Italia, 250, 348.
4 Campodonico, La marineria, 204.
5 They mostly used half-galleys, galeottes (quarter-galleys) and small or medium-sized sail and oar-propelled feluccas and xebecs.
6 Archivio di Stato di Torino, Archivio di Corte (State Archive of Turin, Court Archive, hereafter ASTo Corte), Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 17, viceroy Della Trinità to Bogino, 21 Jun. 1765.
7 Numerous references to the Maltese galley cruises for the period 1752–72 are to be found in the correspondence of the viceroys of Sardinia with the king and the State Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzi 12–20.
8 As late as 1793 a French half-galley, possibly a privateer, operated along the Ligurian coast, Archivio di Stato di Torino, Sezioni Riunite (State Archive of Turin, United Sections, hereafter ASTo SR), Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 219, Segreteria di Guerra, 22 Jul. 1793; Rossi, Storia della marina, 91.
9 The house of Savoy also possessed the Ligurian coastal towns of Loano and Oneglia, which were enclaves completely surrounded by the territory of the Republic of Genoa.
10 The term Kingdom of Sardinia refers to the country ruled by the house of Savoy. The terms ‘Sardinian navy’ and ‘Savoy navy’ are synonymous with the navy of the Kingdom of Sardinia.
11 Smollett, Travels Through France and Italy, 235–9.
12 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 133; Secretary of War to Carlo Cacherano d’Osasco Commissioner of the galleys, 13 May 1729.
13 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del Vicerè, mazzo 19, viceroy Des Hayes to Bogino, 28 Sep. 1769.
14 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 158, Bogino to the galleys commander Hallen, 6 Nov. 1743.
15 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del Vicerè, mazzo 11, viceroy Valguarnera to Bogino, 12 May 1749. In that year the Algerian squadron that called at Leghorn was composed of 14 xebecs and two square rigged ships.
16 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, economico, categoria XX militare, mazzo 1, Risultato del congresso tenutosi il 26 Maggio 1752.
17 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 173, Bogino to de Blonay, 11 Mar. 1752.
18 At that time, the Sardinian galley officers held army ranks.
19 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, economico, categoria XX militare, mazzo 1, Risultato del congresso tenutosi il 26 May 1752.
20 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 173, Bogino to Paterson, 5 May 1752.
21 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 14, viceroy Della Trinità to Bogino, 7 Jul. 1755.
22 Rodger, ‘Law and Language’.
23 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 14, viceroy Della Trinità to Bogino, 9 Aug. 1755.
24 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 15, viceroy Alfieri to Bogino, 16 Aug. 1762.
25 ASTo SR, Ministero della guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, mazzo 179, Bogino to Balbiano, 10 Aug. 1759.
26 Ibid., mazzo 182, Bogino to de Blonay, 15 May 1761.
27 ASTo Corte, Materie militari, Ufficio generale del soldo, mazzo 3 d’addizione, fasc. 12, Bogino, 12 Nov. 1763.
28 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Contado di Nizza, Porto di Villafranca, 1° addizione, mazzo 2, Bogino, undated.
29 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Contado di Nizza, Porto di Villafranca, 1° addizione, mazzo 2, Bogino to de Viry, 3 Dec. 1762, ‘qui a toujours témoigné être fort porté pour ce qui regarde le Service du Roy’. Admiral of the fleet John Forbes (1714–96) commanded the Royal Navy’s Mediterranean fleet.
30 He added that the cost for building, arming and provisioning for six months one of the 32-gun, 680-ton frigates armed with 26 12-pounders and four 6-pounders amounted to £12,000, ibid. de Viry to Bogino, 13 Dec. 1762. Forbes was probably referring to the 32-gun Niger class frigates, designed by Slade, of which eight had been completed by 1762.
31 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 184, Bogino to Balbiano, 19 Mar. 1763. Before coppering become usual, the ship’s bottoms were sheathed with an expendable layer of thin wooden planking.
32 ASTo Corte, Materie politiche per rapporto all’estero, lettere Ministri, Gran Bretagna, mazzo 68, de Viry to Raiberti, 7 Jun. 1763.
33 ASTo Corte , Paesi, Contado di Nizza, Porto di Villafranca, 1° addizione, mazzo 3, Segreteria di Guerra, 18 Aug. 1769.
34 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 185, Bogino to de Blonay, 11 Nov. 1763.
35 Gibbon, Memoirs, 168.
36 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 185, Bogino to Balbiano, 3 Dec. 1763.
37 Apéndice a la educacion popular, 166.
38 The National Archives of England and Wales (hereafter TNA), ADM 51/681, captains’ log ADM 51/681; captains’ logs, including Arnold (1762 Mar. 8–1762 Aug. 4) and Assumption (Prize) (1762 Oct.-1763 Apr. 3).
39 TNA, ADM 354/171/141, John Clevland, 21 Mar. 1763.
40 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 190, Bogino to Atkins, 25 Nov. 1768.
41 ASTo Corte, Materie politiche per rapporto all’estero, lettere Ministri, Gran Bretagna, mazzo 68, de Viry to Raiberti, 16 Aug. 1763.
42 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 185, Bogino to Turletti, 21 Oct. 1763. Once in Villafranca, the Hermione was fitted with two additional 8-pounders, mounted on the forecastle as chase guns.
43 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, affari di marina, ordini generali e personali, registro 3, Inventory of the San Carlo, 13 May 1769.
44 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 185, Bogino to Turletti, 11 Nov 1763.
45 Ibid., registro 186, Bogino to Balbiano, 30 Mar. 1764. In other documents the surname is spelled Waitewood, Waithewood or Withwood. La Marmora remarked that he was a naval lieutenant on half pay.
46 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 184, Bogino to de Blonay, 21 Jan.1763.
47 Ibid., Bogino to de Blonay, 4 Mar. 1763.
48 ASTo Corte, Materie politiche per rapporto all’estero, lettere Ministri, Gran Bretagna, mazzo 68, de Viry to Ossorio, 25 Apr. 1763.
49 Smollett, Travels Through France and Italy, 241–2.
50 ASTo Corte, Materie politiche per rapporto all’estero, lettere Ministri, Gran Bretagna, mazzo 68, de Viry to Raiberti, 12 Sept. 1763.
51 Ibid., mazzo 69, La Marmora to Bogino, 9 Dec. 1763.
52 Gibbon, Memoirs, 168.
53 ASTo Corte, Materie politiche per rapporto all’estero, lettere Ministri, Gran Bretagna, registro 186, Bogino to de Blonay, 20 Jan. 1764.
54 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 186, Bogino to Turletti, 16 May 1764.
55 It was estimated at seven xebecs, two polacres, one pinco and some galeotte, the strongest force ever sent by that regency to raid Sardinia. ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 16, viceroy Della Trinità to Bogino, 25 Nov. 1763.
56 Smollett, Travels Through France and Italy, 241
57 A sailmaker resident at Nizza was deemed unable to make the large sails needed.
58 ASTo Corte, Materie politiche per rapporto all’estero, lettere Ministri, Gran Bretagna, mazzo 70, La Marmora to de Viry, 3 May 1765.
59 Despite this assurance only Ross turned out to be a good choice. He was soon promoted to lieutenant and served in the Sardinian navy until at least 1795. Moor and Sheriff, were noted for heavy drinking and were dismissed as early as September 1765. Penny served as a lieutenant on the San Carlo but was dismissed in 1766 following a court martial. The same thing happened to Bunyan in 1768. ASTo Corte, Paesi, Contado di Nizza, Porto di Villafranca, 1° addizione, mazzo 3, fascicolo 15, Segreteria di Guerra, 18 Aug. 1769.
60 Ibid., La Marmora to de Viry, 9 Sep. 1765.
61 Atkins was never officially commissioned commander of the ships squadron, but in the distribution of the prize shares he was entitled to the same number of shares previously entitled to the commander of the galley squadron.
62 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Contado di Nizza, Porto di Villafranca, 1° addizione, mazzo 3, fasc. 15, Segreteria di Guerra, 18 Aug. 1769.
63 Shortly after his arrival at Villafranca he struck an English sailor he thought had spoken to de Blonay without having been authorized. In fact, it had been the Sardinian official who had asked the sailor to act as interpreter between him and Atkins, as de Blonay explained afterward. ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 185, Bogino to de Blonay, 21 Oct. 1763.
64 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 187, Bogino to Turletti, 10 Jan. 1766.
65 On average the voyage took five or six days but in one occasion they did it in only 54 hours.
66 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, economico, categoria 20 Militare, mazzo 1, fasc. 42, viceroy Des Hayes to Atkins, 19 Jul. 1768.
67 ASTo SR, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere di S. A. R poi di S.M., mazzo 24, the king to Atkins, 2 Jul. 1767; ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 19, viceroy Des Hayes to Bogino, 12 Aug. 1768.
68 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 17, viceroy Della Trinità to Bogino, 22 Nov. 1765.
69 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, politico, categoria 1, presa di possesso, mazzo 3, fasc. 79, Allione di Brondel commander of the pinco guardacoste to viceroy Della Trinità, 23 Mar. 1767.
70 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, economico, categoria 20 Militare, mazzo 1, fasc. 42, viceroy Della Trinità to Atkins, 21 Jul. 1767.
71 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 190, Bogino to Atkins, 25 Nov. 1768. Viceroy Des Hayes noticed that they were much worn out but thought they could last a little longer. ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, lettere del vicerè, mazzo 19, viceroy Des Hayes to Bogino, 13 Jan. 1769.
72 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 190, Bogino to Atkins, 9 Dic. 1768
73 Ibid., Marina, Ordini generali e personali, registro 3, 1 May 1769.
74 ASTo Corte , Paesi, Contado di Nizza, Porto di Villafranca, 1° addizione, mazzo 3, fasc. 15, Segreteria di Guerra, 18 Aug. 1769.
75 The Montreal was one of 11 highly successful Niger class vessels designed by Thomas Slade.
76 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Archivio della Marina 1814–61, ordini generali e personali, registro 3, Bogino to Maccabei, 7 Jan. 1770. In 1774 a David Mearns was involved in the failed launch of Renown (50) at Northam dockyard. TNA, ADM 106/1225/132.
77 Both were decommissioned in 1800.
78 Ross remained in service until at least 1795.
79 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 214, Chiavarina to de Foncenex, 19 Jun. 1786.
80 Prasca, La Marina da guerra, 81–2.
81 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 214, Chiavarina to de Foncenex, 19 Jun. 1786.
82 Ibid., Chiavarina to de Foncenex, 18 Aug. 1786.
83 ASTo SR, Fondo Marina, carteggio ufficio marina di Villafranca, registro 13, 29 Jun. 1787; ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Archivio della Marina 1814–61, ordini generali e personali, registro 8, 25 May 1789.
84 Prasca, La Marina da guerra, 77. De Foncenex escaped the French captivity and returned to Piedmont. He was court martialled for his surrender of Villafranca and condemned to life imprisonment, but pardoned a few years later. He died in 1798.
85 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 219, Cravanzana to Revel, 8 Oct. 1793.
86 Archivio storico di Pinerolo, archivio Des Geneys, carte relative ad affari militari, faldone 24, fasc. 838, Des Geneys, Relation donne au Marquis de Cravanzana au mon retour de France en Aout, 3 Oct. 1795. In James, Naval History of Great Britain, I, 84, the action is mistakenly recorded as having taken place on May.
87 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Sardegna, economico, categoria 20 Militare, mazzo 10, Stato degli equipaggi dei Regi Legni pendente l’inverno, 7 Oct. 1809.
88 ASTo Corte, Materie militari, materie militari per categorie, marina e ammiragliato, mazzo 1, Des Geneys to the king, 13 Aug. 1815.
89 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Ufficio generale del soldo, relazioni a S. M., mazzo 15, de Foncenex, Memoire concernant l’etablissement d’une Marine, 2 Feb. 1787.
90 ASTo Corte, Paesi, Contado di Nizza, Porto di Villafranca, 1° addizione, mazzo 3, fasc. 5, Segreteria di Guerra, 18 Aug. 1769.
91 ASTo SR, Ministero della Guerra, Regia Segreteria di Guerra, lettere particolari, registro 197, Bogino to Foncenex, 7 May 1773.
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Aldo Antonicelli
Aldo Antonicelli is a long-standing member of the Society for Nautical Research. His interests, other than the House of Savoy’s navy, range from medieval times to naval artillery and the steam navies of the nineteenth century. He writes for the Italian Navy’s Rivista Marittima (Maritime Magazine) and Bollettino dell’ufficio storico della Marina (Bulletin of the Navy Historical Branch) and is a regular contributor to Storia Militare (Military History).