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Abstract
During the eighteenth century the ballad was one of the most important vehicles of mass communication. The Royal Navy was a consistent and popular subject for ballads and hundreds of songs were published with a distinct naval theme. This article analyses the nature of naval ballads, and investigates their potential political, social and cultural roles. It also studies the language of these ballads, to show how they shaped ideas about the navy, and in turn assess their role in naval recruitment. By considering the social–cultural milieu in which decisions about volunteering took place, it argues that patriotism, duty and identity played an important role in encouraging men to join the navy.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on the manuscript. Early in my research I benefited hugely from the advice of Angela McShane, and I am grateful to Jeremiah Dancy for sharing his findings with me before they were published. I am also indebted to Katy Barrett, Quintin Colville, Aaron Jaffer, Katie Parker and Hannah Scally, who read the article in full and made a number of useful suggestions.
Notes
1 ‘The Lucky Sailor, or the Sailor’s Invitation to go with Admiral Anson’, 1745. Sir Frederic Madden Collection, University of Cambridge, vol. 5, no. 1034 (hereafter ‘Madden’ with vol. and no., abbreviated titles given at second occurrence).
2 For recent examples see Rogers, The Press Gang; Brunsman, The Evil Necessity; Land, War, Nationalism and the British Sailor.
3 Dancy, Myth of the Press Gang, 38–9, estimates that as little as 16 per cent of seamen were impressed. Prior to Dancy’s work, historians had estimated that the proportion of pressed men was much higher: Lewis (Social History of the Navy, 139) argued for a figure of 50 per cent, perhaps rising to 75 per cent if the Quota Acts and foreigners were taken into account, and Baugh (‘The Eighteenth-Century Navy’, 138–9) argued that the figure was between 50 and 75 per cent. The more qualified analysis of Rogers (Press Gang, 4–5) suggests figures between 32 per cent and 63 per cent at different points during the long eighteenth century, and he gives 40 per cent as an estimated figure for the period 1738 to 1815. For recent critiques of Dancy’s work see Nicholas Rogers’s review in the Journal of Military History, 80:2, (April 2016) and Isaac Land ‘New Scholarship of the Press Gang’, http://porttowns.port.ac.uk/press-gang2/.
4 Rodger, The Wooden World; Rodger, The Command of the Ocean; Lewis, Social History of the Navy; Baugh, British Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole; Baugh, Naval Administration 1715–1750; Gradish, Manning of the British Navy; Starkey, ‘War and the Market for Seafarers in Britain, 1736-1792’, 30–1.
5 McShane, ‘Recruiting Citizens for Soldiers’, 112.
6 See Dancy, Myth of the Press Gang, 92–4; Lubbock, (ed.), Barlow’s Journal, vol. 1, 163, 244, 119, 137. 134 and vol. 2, 548, 424; Land, War, Nationalism and the British Sailor, 21; Land, ‘Patriotic Complaints’, 102–20.
7 See Rodger, The Wooden World, 154; Adkins and Adkins, Jack Tar, 60–1.
8 Colley, Britons. For her detractors see Clark, ‘Protestantism, Nationalism and National Identity’; Cookson, British Armed Nation. See also Hastings, Construction of Nationhood, esp. 60-3; Hay and Rogers, Eighteenth Century English, esp. 152–67; Brocklehurst and Phillips (eds), History, Nationhood and the Question of Britain; Grant and Stringer, Uniting the Kingdom; Mandler, ‘What is National Identity’, 272–97.
9 Kennedy, Narratives of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
10 Colley, Britons; Colley, ‘The Reach of the State’; Conway, ‘War and National Identity’; Conway, ‘Mobilization of Manpower’, 377–404; Clark, ‘Protestantism, Nationalism and National Identity’, 249–76; Wilson, Sense of the People; Cookson, British Armed Nation; Kidd, ‘North Britishness’, 361–82; Cardwell, Arts and Arms; Cookson, ‘The English Volunteer Movement’, 867–91.
11 In this article I use both ‘song’ and ‘ballad’, for song forms in this period were malleable and frequently intersected with each other. See Horgan, Politics of Songs, 5–6.
12 Pettit, ‘Journalism vs. Tradition’, 75.
13 Horgan, Politics of Songs, 5.
14 Jensen, Napoleon and British Song, 6. Dating specific ballads can be difficult: very few bore a date, making it hard to determine a song’s first appearance. Scholars can use lyrical evidence and external references (some ballads mention events and figures which allow for fairly precise dating) but are in the main reliant on the earliest existing print edition to gauge an accurate date of publication. Similarly, adverts in pamphlets and newspapers also allow us to pin down exact publication dates. Dates and publishers are given when known. For more on the dating of ballads see Jensen, Napoleon and British Song, 11.
15 Jensen, Napoleon and British Song, 3.
16 See, for example, Palmer, The Sound of History, 283.
17 McShane’s ground-breaking work, ‘Recruiting Citizens for Soldiers’, considered the influence ballads had in recruiting soldiers during the seventeenth century. Jensen’s Napoleon and British Song offers a fascinating take on the way the French Emperor was represented and used by British balladeers. For the ‘new cultural history of music’ see Horgan, Politics of Songs, 4, and Fumerton and Guerrini, Ballads and Broadsides.
18 In her wide-ranging book about political song in the eighteenth century, Kate Horgan mentions ‘navy songs’ only once (Politics of Songs, 21, and that a reference to Firth, who compiled a collection of naval ballads in the early twentieth century) while even Colley ignores song as a propagating medium of national unity, despite this fitting many of her broader arguments. Similarly, Herbert and Barlow’s Music and the British Militaryis concerned primarily with the army. Though aware of the relevance of the Royal Navy to their themes, they note that ‘it is bigger and more important topic than we could deal with here’, noting that a similar work on the music of the navy has yet to be written. Herbert and Barlow, Music and the British Military, 15.
19 Watt, Cheap Print, 11; Fumerton and Guerrini, ‘Introduction’, in Ballads and Broadsides, 1–2, quote at 1.
20 McShane, ‘Political Cobblers and Broadside Ballads’, 208–9; Perry, ‘War and the Media in Border Minstrelsy: The Ballad of Chevy Chase’, 253; St Clair, Reading Nation, 345–8.
21 Madden, vols 17–19, ‘The Jolly Roving Tar’ (Carlisle), ‘The Admiral’ (Preston: John Hawkins), ‘The Brave Old Admiral’ (Lincoln: J. Ringham), ‘Tom Bowling’ (Ballingdon: W. Hill); St Clair, Reading Nation, 345–8.
22 Wilson, Sense of the People, 29–31.
23 McKendrick, ‘Consumer Revolution’, 9, 20–5; Brewer ‘Commercialisation and Politics’, 200, 207–8.
24 National Maritime Museum (hereafter NMM) PAF3959, ‘Admiral Hosier’s Ghost’ (London, Charles Mosley, 1740)
25 27 May 1740.
26 Watt, Cheap Print, 11; Fumerton and Guerrini, ‘Introduction’, 1–2; Fumerton, Unsettled, 132–3; Marsh, Music and Society, 225–87.
27 Millar, ‘Views of the Ballad’, 125.
28 Perry, ‘War and the Media in Border Minstrelsy’, 208.
29 ‘England’s Glory in the Behaviour of Brave Killeygrove’ (London, 1750); Watt, Cheap Print, see in particular chapter 5.
30 McShane, ‘Political Cobblers and Broadside Ballads’, 209.
31 Firth, Naval Songs and Ballads, ix–x.
32 The Royal Ball: As it was perform’d in masquerade by two seamen. Being the subjects hearty-wish for the good success of the king and fleet. (London, P Brooksby, J. Deacon, J. Blare, J. Back, 1690).
33 It is reasonable to assume that the hundreds that survive are representative of those originally printed. For similar arguments about other genres of music see Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety, 11; McShane, ‘Political Cobblers and Broadside Ballads’, 207–8.
34 Daily Post and the Monthly Chronicle , 4 Aug. 1729.
35 The Merry Man’s Companion and Evenings Entertainer: Containing near six hundred of the very best and most favourite songs, catches, airs, &c now in vogue (London, H. Kent, 1750).
36 Vocal Melody, or the Songster’s Magazine: In three parts (London, R. Baldwin, 1751).
37 The Bacchanalian: Or, choice spirits containing all the most celebrated new songs, and favourite airs, duetts, cantatas, &c sung at the theatres Vauxhall, Ranelagh, the musical societies, and other places of public report, to this day (London, J. Towers, 1755), (hereafter The Bacchanalian), 52–3.
38 During the 1690s there were seven ballads either published or copublished by P. Brooksby: ‘The Undaunted Seaman’, ‘The Protestant’s Contemplation’, ‘The Nations Joy for a War’, ‘The Seaman’s Loyal Love’, ‘The Siege of Dunkirk’, ‘The Distracted French King’ and ‘The Royal Ball’. Similarly, a century later, Dibdin’s sea songs numbered over a hundred.
39 Partington, Charles Dibdin, 8.
40 McShane, Broadside Ballads of Seventeenth-century England, xv.
41 McShane, ‘Political Cobblers and Broadside Ballads’, 225.
42 The London Journal , 28 Jan. 1720.
43 See Worrall, Theatric Revolution, 33–48; see also Connelly, Censorship of English Drama, 1737–1824; Stephens, The Censorship of English Drama.
44 Hilton, Mad, Bad, and Dangerous People?, especially 57–73; Philp, French Revolution and British Popular Politics; Emsley, British Society.
45 Naval ballad output was largely limited to years of warfare: The Nine Years War (1688–1697), the War of Spanish Succession (1701–14), the Anglo-Spanish Conflict of 1727–9, the War of Austrian Succession and the War of Jenkins Ear (1739–48), the Seven Years War (1756–63), the American War of Independence (1776–83) and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1801, 1803–15) all saw the publication a vast compendium of naval ballads.
46 A Second Letter from a Member of Parliament to his Friend’s in the Country; Concerning the Sum of 115,000 l. granted to make good the Civil-List Revenue (London: R. W., 1729).
47 ‘A Merry New Ballad on the Great Victory over the French Fleet’ (19 May 1692).
48 ‘The Pacific Fleet: A New Ballad’ (London, 1729).
49 McShane, ‘Recruiting Citizens’, 122, 129.
50 ‘Great Britain’s Glory, Or The Stay-at-home Fleet. A New Ballad, to the tune of Packington’s Pownd’ (London, A. Moore, 1728).
51 ‘Britons Strike Home, or, the Sailor’s Rehearsal’ (London, J. Watts, 1739).
52 ‘Admiral Hosier’s Ghost’; The Charmer: A Choice Collection of Songs, Scots and English (Edinburgh: J. Yair, 1752).
53 ‘The Nations Joy for a War With Monsieur, or, England’s Resolution to Pluck Down France’ (London, P. Brooksby, 1690).
54 Quilley, Empire to Nation, 169–70.
55 ‘The Seaman’s Victory; Or, Admiral Killegrew’s glorious conquest over the French fleet, in the Streights, as they were coming from Thoulon towards Brest’ (London, 1750).
56 The Bacchanalian, 52.
57 ‘The Saphirah [sic] In Triumph: Or, British valor display’d’ (about 1744).
58 ‘A Ballad, to the Tune of “On the Fourteenth of August”’ (London, J. Millan, 1741).
59 ‘Hearts of Oak’ (1759).
60 Dibdin, Songs, Naval and National, 41–2.
61 Ibid., 16–17.
62 Ibid., 16–17, 22, 48, 58–9, 76.
63 English Broadside Ballad Archive (hereafter EBBA), Pepys 4.206, ‘The Boatswain’s Call; or the couragious mariner’s invitation to all his brother sailors to forsake friends and relations for to fight in the defence of their king and country’, about 1675–96 (hereafter ‘The Boatswain’s Call’.
64 ‘A Ballad, To the Tune of ‘On the Fourteenth of August’.
65 ‘The Courageous Seaman; Or, his farwel to his sweet-heart, resolving to fight in the defence of his king and country’ (London, J Millet, 1690).
66 EBBA, Pepys 4.211, ‘The Undaunted Seaman; Who Resolved to fight for his king and country: together with his love’s sorrowful lamentation at their departure’ (London, P. Brooksby, J. Deacon, J Blare and J Black, about 1675–96).
67 Madden 4,199, ‘Britain’s Resolution to Fight the French’ (no date, but certainly produced in the late 1740s, as the references to Anson, Hawke, Boscawen testify).
68 Madden, 4,529, ‘England’s Resolution to Down with Popery, in Spite of France and Spain’.
69 Madden, 8, 833, ‘British Tars’ (J. Pitts, London).
70 Fumerton, Unsettled, 135, 146.
71 ‘A Ballad, To the Tune of “On the Fourteenth of August”’.
72 The Bacchanalian, 52.
73 ‘A Copy of Verses, Composed by Captain Henry Everly Lately Gone to Sea to Seek his Fortune’ (London, T. Lewis 1694)
74 Madden, 4, 23, ‘The Adventures of a British Sailor’ (London, no date given); Madden 4, 199, ‘Britain’s Resolution to Fight the French’.
75 Madden 4, 5. ‘The Absent Sailor’ (around 1740–1750s).
76 EBBA, Pepys 4.206, ‘The Boatswain’s Call’.
77 Madden, 4, 40, ‘All on Board a Man of War’ (Vauxhall, Dignum, around 1740–1750s).
78 Madden, 8,833, ‘British Tars’ (J. Pitts, London, no date given).
79 ‘The Lucky Sailor’, Madden, 5,1034.
80 McShane, ‘Recruiting Citizens, 116.
81 Madden, 6, 1585, ‘The Press’d Sailor’s Lamentation: A new song’; Madden, 6, 1841, ‘True Blue, Or, the Press Gang’.
82 See Palmer, The Sound of History, 283.
83 Jensen, Napoleon and British Song, 94.
84 See for example Madden, 6, 1787, ‘O Cruel Press Gang’; 6, 1560, ‘Polly Lamenting for the Loss of her Bonny Sailor’; 6, 1585, ‘The Press’d Sailor’s Lamentation’; 6, 1841, ‘True Blue, or, the Press Gang’ and, most famous of all, 6, 1561, Dibdin’s ‘Poor Jack’.
85 Madden 6, 1787, ‘O Cruel Press Gang’.
86 Madden, 6, 1560, ‘Polly Lamenting’.
87 McShane, ‘Recruiting Citizens’, 133.
88 ‘The Seaman’s Loyal Love: Or, the couragious damsels generous spirit, in freely parting with her love to enter on board that he might fight for K. William and Q. Mary, and pull down the growing pride of France’ (London, P. Brooksby, J. Deacon, J. Blare, J. Black, 1692).
89 EBBA, Pepys 4.170, ‘The Loyal Seaman’s Happy Return’ (London, Joshua Compass, 1689). See McShane, Political Broadside Ballads, 449–50.
90 Madden, 6, 1561, ‘Poor Jack’.
91 Dibdin, Songs, Naval and National, 39.
92 The Greenwich Pensioner’s Garland Containing Several Excellent New Songs (Newcastle, 1793.
93 Dibdin, Songs, Naval and National, 71–2.
94 Sir Richard Brewster, preface to his Essays on Trade (London, Thomas Cockerill, 1695).
95 Manuscript in the possession of Sir Robert Walpole, ‘Some Consideration Relating to the Seamen of this Kingdom’, about 1727, quoted in Baugh, Naval Administration 1715–1750, 101.
96 Marsh, Music and Society, 283.
97 Ibid., 284.
98 The National Archives, ADM 3/45 1 Apr. 1742, ADM 3/46, 1 Sep. 1742, ADM 3/48, 14 Apr. 1744, referred to in Baugh, British Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole, 203.
99 NMM, ELL/9, ‘Miscellaneous Papers Relating to the Impressment of Seamen’; Gradish, Manning of the British Navy, 69; Rodger, Command of the Ocean, 319; Dancy, Myth of the Press Gang, 81.
100 Spavens, The Narrative of William Spavens, 1.
101 Leech, A Voice from the Main Deck, 10.
102 Nicol, Life and Adventures of John Nicol, 7.
103 Stevenson, Popular Disturbances, 50; NMM, ELL/9, ‘Miscellaneous Papers’.
104 Land, War, Nationalism and the British Sailor, 5.
105 Partington, Charles Dibdin, 3. The pension was withdrawn by the succeeding ministry.
106 Dibdin, Songs, Naval and National, xii.
107 The Professional Life of Mr Dibdin, Written by Himself; Together with the Words of Eight Hundred Songs, Two Hundred and Twenty of Which Will Have their Appropriate Music (London, 1809), 11.
108 NMM, PBB 7084, Recruitment poster (Lewes, W. & A. Lee, 1797).
109 Land, War, Nationalism and the British Sailor, 10.
110 NMM, PBB 7531, ‘Three Men For The Navy Wanted’, about 1739
111 NMM, ELL/9 ‘Miscellaneous Papers’.
112 NMM, PBB 7084, ‘Royal Tars of Old England’, recruitment poster, 1797; NMM, PBB 9528 ‘All Young Men . . .’, 1780.
113 ‘The Pacific Fleet: A New Ballad’ (London, 1729).
114 EBBA, Pepys, 4.209, ‘The Protestant Courage: Or, a brief account of some hundreds of valliant sea-men, who daily comes in to serve their majesties, against the forces of the french King’, about 1671–1702.
115 Madden, 4,533, ‘English Heroes’.
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James Davey
Dr James Davey is Curator of Naval History at the National Maritime Museum. He has written widely on the history of the navy, his latest book being In Nelson’s Wake: The navy and the Napoleonic Wars (Yale University Press, 2015). James is a Council member of the Society for Nautical Research and the Navy Records Society, and an editor for the Journal for Maritime Research. In 2015 he was awarded the Jan Glete Prize by the Swedish Society for Maritime History.