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Notes
The research and writing of earlier versions of this paper was made possible by grants from the UN Population Council and New York University Dean's Dissertation Fellowship. I am indebted to numerous people in Egypt, Lebanon, and Turkey who generously gave their time to participate in my research. I also would like to thank Timothy Mitchell, Elisabeth Wood, Farhad Kazemi, Anupama Rao, Michael Gilsenan, and Betty Anderson for their comments on earlier drafts.
1. See, for instance, U. Makdisi, ‘“Anti-Americanism” in the Arab World: An Interpretation of a Brief History’, The Journal of American History, Vol.82. No.2 (Sept. 2002); and F. Zachs, ‘From the Mission to the Missionary: The Bliss Family and the Syrian Protestant College (1866–1920)’, Die Welt Des Islams, Vol.45, No.2 (2005).
2. K.P. Phillips, Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich (New York: Broadway Books, 2002), p.43.
3. R.L. Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, 1820–1960 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1970), p.94.
4. Ibid., p.68.
5. A.L. Miller, ‘Wind from the West’, Saudi Aramco World, Vol.20, No.6 (1969).
6. See for a history of the company R.G. Cleland, A History of Phelps Dodge, 1834–1950 (New York: Knopf, 1952).
7. R. Vitalis, America's Kingdom: Myth-Making on the Saudi Oil Frontier (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007).
8. See Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, pp.79–90, and S. Penrose, That They May Have Life: The Story of American University of Beirut 1866–1941 (Beirut: The American University of Beirut Press, 1970), pp.23, 71–72 for a discussion of the activities of David Stuart Dodge and William Dodge.
9. See for the history of Near East Relief, E.H. Tejirian, ‘Faith of Our Fathers: Near East Relief and the Near East Foundation – from Mission to NGO’, Paper presented at the conference ‘Altruism and Imperialism: The Western Religious and Cultural Missionary Enterprise in the Middle East’, Bellagio, Italy (2000).
10. J. Freely, A History of Robert College, the American College for Girls, and Boğaziçi University (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2000), p.18.
11. J.L. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East: Missionary Influence on American Policy, 1810–1927 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1971), pp.88–9 and http://www.chdodgefoundation.org/history.shtm (last accessed 12 Dec. 2005).
12. See R.D. Kaplan, The Arabists: The Romance of an American Elite (New York and Toronto: Free Press and Maxwell Macmillan Canada, 1993), p.187; and Vitalis, America's Kingdom.
13. Penrose, That They May Have Life, p.200.
14. Calculated from Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East; and Penrose, That They May Have Life.
15. F.C. Gates, Not to Me Only (Princeton, NJ and London: Princeton University Press and Oxford University Press, 1940), p.160.
16. http://prometheusli.com/hamlet/hamletpeople/tngfiles507/getperson.php?personID=I6864&tree=hamlet (last accessed 12 Dec. 2005).
17. See http://www.spoonercentral.com/Mastics/Robert.html and http://www.longislandgenealogy.com/DrRoberts/1.htm (last accessed 5 March 2006).
18. See Hutchinson Encyclopedia of Biography (2000); and Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography (1898).
19. See Barron's, Boston, MA, 23 July 1923, Vol.3, No.30, p.13.
20. See Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography (1898).
21. See for his biography S. Engelbourg and L. Bushkoff, The Man Who Found the Money: John Stewart Kennedy and the Financing of the Western Railroads (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1996).
22. Phillips, Wealth and Democracy, pp.253–4.
23. Gates, Not to Me Only, p.197.
24. R.W. Hidy, F.E. Hill and A. Nevins, Timber and Men: The Weyerhaeuser Story (New York: Macmillan, 1963), p.11.
25. Ibid., p.105.
26. http://www.germanheritage.com/biographies/mtoz/weyerthaeuser.html (last accessed 15 Dec. 2005).
27. Hidy et al., Timber and Men, p.106.
28. Hidy et al., Timber and Men, p.224.
29. Ibid., p.214.
30. See http://www.weyerhaeuser.com (last accessed 12 Dec. 2005).
31. http://www.endgame.org/weyerprofile.html (last accessed 15 Dec. 2005).
32. L.R. Murphy, The American University in Cairo: 1919–1987 (Cairo: The American University Press, 1987), p.8.
33. See U. Makdisi, ‘Reclaiming the Land of the Bible: Missionaries, Secularism, and Evangelical Modernity’, The American Historical Review, Vol.102, No.3 (1997), pp.680–713; F. Al-Sayegh, ‘American Missionaries in the UAE Region in the Twentieth Century’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.32, No.1 (1996), pp.120–39; and Ö. Turan, ‘American Protestant Missionaries and Monastir, 1912–17: Secondary Actors in the Construction of Balkan Nationalisms’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.36, No.4 (2000), pp.119–36 for discussions of the failures of conversion objectives and their replacements by different aims and activities in a variety of regions.
34. H. Bliss, ‘The Modern Missionary’, The Atlantic Monthly (May 1920).
35. See for a discussion of this article Zachs, ‘From the Mission to the Missionary’, p.273.
36. D.L. Robert, ‘The First Globalization: The Internationalization of the Protestant Missionary Movement Between the World Wars’, International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol.26, No.2 (2002), p.54.
37. Ibid., pp.50–66.
38. E.S. Rosenberg and E. Foner, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890–1945 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982), pp.7–8.
39. Ibid., pp.32–33, 42.
40. Ibid., pp.76–86.
41. Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East, pp.80–85.
42. Penrose, That They May Have Life, pp.162–3.
43. Freely, A History of Robert College, p.226.
44. See for the friendship between the two and Howard Bliss at the Paris Conference, Penrose, That They May Have Life, pp.97, 108, 166, and Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East, pp.155, 172–6, 181.
45. See Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, pp.163–4. Their findings, after visiting the area from June to August 1919, indicated that populations of Syria, Lebanon and Palestine wanted a greater Syria, under the rule of an Arab leader. The commission also advised against the idea of a Jewish homeland and called for the restriction of Jewish migration to Palestine. The findings of this report were never published. They also surveyed Armenians in the Anatolian provinces. In the end they recommended a separate Armenia, and international Constantinople, and a Turkish state, all to be American mandates. The report was not published until December 1922. See for the original document W. Laquer and B.M. Rubin, The Israel–Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict (New York: Penguin Books, 2001), pp.23–5.
46. Kaplan, The Arabists, pp.68–71.
47. Gates, Not to Me Only, pp.287–9.
48. Ibid., pp.295–6.
49. Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, pp.273–8.
50. Makdisi, ‘Reclaiming the Land of the Bible'.
51. M. El-Shakry, ‘The Gospel of Science and American Evangelism in late Ottoman Beirut’, Past and Present, Vol. 196, No. 1 (2007), pp. 173–214.
52. Quoted from the Foreign Missionary 371 (1878) in Makdisi, ‘Reclaiming the Land of the Bible’, p.709.
53. Vitalis, America's Kingdom.
54. E. Doumato, ‘Extra Legible Illustration of Christian Faith: Medicine, Medical Ethics, and Missionaries in the Arabian Gulf’, Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations, Vol.13 (2002).
55. Incidentally, when the 50 member states of the United Nations met in San Francisco to draw up the UN Charter, 22 of the delegates present were graduates of RC and AUB, two of the institutions whose establishment was explored in the previous section. Furthermore, AUB held the record for being the alma mater of the largest number of representatives.
56. Rosenberg and Foner, Spreading the American Dream, pp.204–5.
57. F.S. Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 2000), p.97.
58. V.R. Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe: Shepard Stone between Philanthropy, Academy, and Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), pp.148–9.
59. Saunders, The Cultural Cold War, p.97.
60. There have been numerous studies done on the Congress of Cultural Freedom. See for discussions of its links with the CIA, Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars, and Saunders, The Cultural Cold, and for discussions situating it in the context of a rising American empire, D. Pease and A. Kaplan (eds.), Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991) and N.P. Singh, ‘Culture Wars: Recoding Empire in an Age of Democracy’, American Quarterly, Vol.50, No.3 (1998), pp.471–522.
61. Saunders, The Cultural Cold War, pp.71–106.
62. Ibid., pp.125–8.
63. For a fascinating account of this web of relations, see ibid.
64. Among the activities of CCF outside of Europe were programmes in the Middle East. Although more limited in scope, there were the publications of Hiwar and Adwa until the CIA scandal erupted. Hiwar's politics were low key but still attacked by Communists, Baathists, and Nasserites. Youssef Idriss, the celebrated Egyptian author of The Sinners had to turn down an award given by Hiwar due to these criticisms. The congress also ran a small bureau in Beirut to organize seminars and lectures and to distribute publications. See P. Coleman, The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe (New York and London: Free Press and Collier Macmillan, 1989), pp.275–6 and 189–90.
65. J.C.E. Gienow-Hecht, ‘Shame on US? Academics, Cultural Transfer, and the Cold War – A Critical Review’, Diplomatic History, Vol.24, No.3 (2000), pp.470–71.
66. Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe, p.155.
67. Freely, A History of Robert College, p.102.
68. Calculated from ibid., pp.117–20 and Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, p.238.
69. Freely, A History of Robert College, p.130.
70. Ibid., p.131.
71. Ibid., p.135.
72. M. Fincancı, The Story of Robert College Old and New (Istanbul: Alumni Association of the American Colleges of Istanbul, 1983), p.33.
73. Freely, A History of Robert College, pp.145–50.
74. See for a history of the period, E. Picard, Lebanon, A Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon (New York: Holmes & Meier, 2002), pp.44–8.
75. Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, pp.241–3.
76. See for the Ford and Rockefeller grants of the period, Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, pp.242–5.
77. Daniel, American Philanthropy in the Near East, p.243.
78. See for a documentation of the USAID funding in the budget of the university N.G. Khalaf, The Economics of the American University of Beirut: A Study of a Private University in the Developing World (Beirut: The American University of Beirut Press, 1977), pp.37–47 and 90–91.
79. S. Farsoun, ‘Student Protests and the Coming Crisis in Lebanon’, MERIP Reports, Vol.19 (1973), p.9.
80. Murphy, The American University in Cairo, p.96.
81. See Kaplan, The Arabists, p.77; and Vitalis, America's Kingdom.
82. Murphy, The American University in Cairo, pp.98–100.
83. Ibid., p.145.
84. Ibid., p.156.
85. Ibid., pp.135–41.
86. Ibid., pp.145–9.
87. Ibid., p.171.
88. Ibid., pp.114–15, 128–9.
89. Ibid., p.182.
90. F.E. Gossett, ‘The American University in Cairo: An Experiment in Cross-Cultural Development’, The Journal of Higher Education, Vol.34, No.3 (1963), pp.153–157.
91. Murphy, The American University in Cairo, p.176.
92. Ibid., p.177.
93. Ibid., pp.182–3.
94. Ibid., pp.181–5.
95. Ibid., pp.200–202.
96. See Y. Dezalay and B.G. Garth, The Internationalization of Palace Wars: Lawyers, Economists, and the Contest to Transform Latin American States (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002); and idem, Dealing in Virtue: International Commercial Arbitration and the Construction of a Transnational Legal Order (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1996).
97. E.N. Sayah, ‘The American University of Beirut and Its Educational Activities in Lebanon, 1920–1967’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of North Texas, 1988), pp.173–4.
98. Interview with the author, Beirut, 6 April 2004.
99. Interview with the author, Beirut, 6 April 2004.
100. F. Colonna, ‘Educating Conformity in French Colonial Algeria’, in F. Cooper and Ann L. Stoler (eds.), Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), pp.346–70.
101. H. Bhabha, ‘Of Mimicry and Man: Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse’, in F. Cooper and A.L. Stoler (eds.), Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
102. Interview with Waddah Nasr, 21 April 2004.
103. Excerpt from an article in the Winter 1995 issue of AUC Today.
104. Freely, A History of Robert College, p.131.
105. Interview with the author, Cairo, 23 Sept. 2003.
106. Interview with the author, Istanbul, 19 July 2004.
107. See M. Castells, The Rise of Network Society (Oxford and Malden: Blackwell Publisher/Sociological Review, 2000).
108. A. Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
109. See I. Grewal, Transnational America: Feminisms, Diasporas, Neoliberalisms, Next Wave (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005); and A. Ong, Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).
110. Grewal, Transnational America, p.14.
111. Ibid.
112. A. Farha, ‘US Ban on Siniora: How to Lose Friends and Win Enemies’, Daily Star, 5 July 2003.
113. R. Fisk, ‘A Fearfully Light Coffin is Carried to a Beirut Grave. Who will be Next?’, The Independent, 15 Dec. 2005.
114. Interview with the author, Cairo, 15 Dec. 2003.
115. See the US Department of Homeland Security webpage, which provides statistics for a variety of immigration procedures: http://uscis.gov/graphics/shared/statistics/yearbook/YrBk04En.htm (last visited 8 Feb. 2006).
116. See http://egypt.usembassy.gov/consular/niv10.htm (last visited 8 Feb. 2006).
117. 21 Feb. 2004, Beirut.
118. 22 Oct. 2003, Cairo.