Countering US Hegemony: The Discourse of Salim al-Hoss and other Arab Intellectuals

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Notes

1. This is the English translation of the slogan ‘Ihdharu Amrika: ‘Adouat al-Shu‘ub, Muthirat al-Hurub’, which is featured in a colour poster in West Beirut-Lebanon. All translations from Arabic that appear in this article were made by the author.

2. M.H. Haykal, Harb al-Khalij: Awham al-Quwwa wa al-Nasr[The Gulf War: Illusions of Power and Victory] (Cairo: Markaz al-Ahram lil-Tiba‘a wa al-Nashr, 1992); and Al-Imbiraturiyya al-Amrikiyya wa al-hujum ‘ala al-‘Iraq[American Imperialism and the Attack on Iraq] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2003).

3. For Arab intellectuals' predominantly negative reactions to the George W. Bush administration's Greater Middle East Initiative (GMEI) which extended the geographic boundaries of the Middle East to include Muslim countries such as Turkey, Afghanistan and Pakistan see S.E. Baroudi, ‘Arab Intellectuals and the Bush Administration Campaign for Democracy: The Case of the Greater Middle East Initiative’, Middle East Journal, Vol.61, No.3 (2007), pp.390–418.

4. This is a play on the words of Edward Bulwer-Lytton who coined the idiom ‘The pen is mightier than the sword’ in his play Richelieu. Bulwer-Lytton was not the first to have conveyed this thought; he probably took it from the Greek poet Euripides, who said ‘the tongue is mightier than the blade’.

5. Strangely enough, Hoss writes that the United States had lost its military encounters since 1945. ‘Dhanb la Yughtafar’[A Misdeed that Cannot be Forgiven] Al-Safir, 31 May 2006; reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif[The Weapon of the Stance] (Beirut: Sharika al-Matbu’at lil-Tawzee’ wa al-Nashr, 2006), pp.97–101.

6. See, in particular, J. Dawes, The Language of War: Literature and Culture in the U.S. from the Civil War through World War II (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 2002), especially the following quote: ‘As war reveals, violence harms language; it imposes silence upon groups and, through trauma and injury disables the capacity of the individual to speak freely’ (p.2). The juxtaposing of language to violence is best seen in the work of Arendt, as in the following quote: ‘Where violence runs absolute, as for instance in the concentration camps of totalitarian regimes, not only the laws … but everything else must fall silent … the point here is that violence itself is incapable of speech, and not merely that speech is helpless when confronted with violence.’ H. Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Viking, 1963), p.9.

7. By this I mean that they do not inform the reader of new facts he/she is not aware of; nor do they connect facts (that the reader is aware of) in novel ways that the reader is not already familiar with.

8. In one recent editorial, Hoss writes that he is proud of his American-style education, and that he shares the American values of freedom and democracy; despite the fact that the United Sates does not apply them outside its borders. ‘Kafarna bi al-Qiyam al-Za’ifa’[We Have Lost Belief in (America's) Alleged Values], Al-Safir, 1 Aug. 2006; reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif, pp.11–15.

9. For Hoss's first appointment as prime minister see ‘Nafidha ‘ala al-Mustaqbal’[A Window to the Future] (Beirut: Dar al-‘Ilm lil-Malayeen, 1981), pp.7–8.

10. Hoss was appointed acting prime minister following Karame's assassination in June 1987.

11. For the governments that Hoss headed and their ministerial statements see: J. Melheh, Hukumat Lubnan[The Governments of Lebanon] (Beirut: Librarie du Liban publishers, 2004), pp.352–64, 407–10, 487–505.

12. Nafidha ‘ala al-Mustaqbal.

13. For references to US domestic politics see, in particular: ‘Amrika: Dimuqratiya fi al-Dakhil wa ‘Usf fi al-Kharij’[America: Internal Democracy and External Tyranny], Al-Afkar (Beirut), 15 November 2004; reprinted in Sawt bila Sada[A Voice without Echo] (Beirut: Sharihaal-Matbu’at lil-Tawzih wa al-Nashr, 2005), pp.29–33; ‘Mushkilatna ma‘ al-Dimuqratiya al-Amirkiya’[Our Dilemma with American Democracy], Al-Nahar, 24 Aug. 2004; reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.149–53; ‘Al-Sawt al-‘Arabi fi al-Intikhabat al-Amrkiya’[The Arab Vote in American Elections], Al-Afkar, 9 Aug. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.177–79; and ‘Ay Dimuqratiya li-Lubnan’[What (Type of) Democracy for Lebanon], Lecture delivered at the launching of the Salim al-Hoss Institute for the Development of Democracy, printed in Silah al-Mawqif, pp.136–49.

14. See, in particular, ‘Ayn al-‘Adala fi al-Siyasa al-Duwaliya’[Where is Justice in International Politics?], Al-Nahar, 29 July 2003, reprinted in ‘Usara al-‘Umr[Summary of Life] (Beirut: Sharika al-Matbu’at lil-Tawzee’ wa al-Nashr, 2004), pp.126–219.

15. For references to these violations see, in particular: ‘Al-Qadiya al-‘Arabiya ba‘da al-Harb ‘ala al-‘Iraq’[The Arab Question in the Aftermath of the War on Iraq], Public lecture delivered on 26 April 2004 to the cultural league in Tripoli-Lebanon, reprinted in ‘Usara al-‘Umr, pp.181–94; ‘Lahum Qiamahum wa lana Qiamana’[They Have their Values and we Have Ours], Al-Afkar, 1 Nov. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.51–4.

16. Hoss poses and immediately answers the question of who governs America by noting that the United States is jointly governed by the executive branch headed by the president and by Congress. He goes on to note: ‘This is the rosy side of the American system that can be described in one word “democracy”. Domestic issues are democratically settled in America.’‘Man Yahkum al-‘Alam’[Who Rules the World], Al-Nahar, 11 May 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.319–23.

17. See, in particular, ‘Munaqashat al-Amrikiyin bi-Mantiqihim’[Debating the Americans on their own Terms], Al-Nahar, 3 Oct. 2004, reprinted in ‘Usara al-‘Umr, pp.240–44; ‘Mu‘jaboun bi-Amrika wa-Lakin!’[We are Fascinated by America, however  … ], Al-Afkar, 22 Nov. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.181–4; ‘Bayn al-Mawqif wa al-Qarar’[Taking a Stand versus Making a Decision], Al-Safir, 27 Dec. 2004, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’[Come to Concordance] (Beirut: Sharika al-Matbou’at lil-Tawzee’ wa al-Nashr, 2006), pp.221–4.

18. See, in particular, K. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1979).

19. ‘Lu‘bat al-Umam fi-Lubnan’[The Game of Nations in Lebanon], Al-Safir (Beirut), 30 May 1981, reprinted in Nafidha ‘ala al-Mustaqbal, pp.91–122.

20. Ibid.

21. Kullahum Irhabiyun wa-Akbarahum Akhtarahum’[They are All Terrorists: the Greatest Among Them is the Most Dangerous], included in Niqat ‘ala al-Huruf[Dotting the i's and Crossing the t's] (Beirut: Al-Markaz al-Islami lil-I‘lam wa al-Inma’, 1987), pp.177–84.

22. See, for example, ‘Man Yurhib Man?’[Who Terrorizes Whom?], Al-Nahar, 14 Sept. 2003, reprinted in ‘Usara al-‘Umr, pp.235–9; ‘‘Indama takun wasma al-Irhab Ukdhuba’[When the Stamp of Terrorism is a Mean Lie], Al-Nahar, 14 Oct. 2003, reprinted in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.248–51; ‘Shari‘at al-Ghab Duwaliya’[International Law of the Jungle], Al-Nahar, 15 Oct. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.67–70; ‘Muharabat al-Irhab bi al-Irhab’[Fighting Terrorism with Terrorism], Al-Nahar, 21 Sept. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.85–9.

23. ‘Al-Irhab Wujhat Nazar’[Terrorism as a Point of View], Al-Safir, 9 April 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.371–5.

24. See, in particular, ‘Al-Shahid in Haka[If the Martyr Speaks], Al-Nahar, 14 Dec. 2004, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.21–5; and ‘Harb bayn man la Yantasir wa man la Yanhazim’[A War between the One who does not Win and the One who is not Vanquished], Al-Safir, 23 Sept. 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.121–5; ‘Akhtar Fikra fi al-‘Asr al-Hadith’[The Most Dangerous Idea in the Modern World], reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.53–9.

25. ‘Al-Irhab wa ma-Adraka Ma al-Irhab’[Terrorism: What can I tell you of Terrorism?], Al-safir, 27 July 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.33–7.

26. ‘Aqwa min al-Qunbula al-Nawawiya’[Stronger than the Atomic Bomb], Al-Nahar, 17 Aug. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.155–9; ‘Al-qatl al-Hadari’[Civilized Murder], Al-Safir, 24 Jan. 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalia Sawa’, pp.15–19.

27. See, inter alia, ‘Ay Salam?’[What Peace?], Address made at the opening of the ‘axis for peace’ conference in Brussels, Belgium, 17 Nov. 2005, published in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.161–7; ‘Difa‘‘an al-‘Uruba’[In Defence of Arabism], Al-Hayat, 18 Jan. 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.397–401.

28. Quoted in L. Pintak, Reflections in a Bloodshot Lens: America, Islam and the War of Ideas (London and Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2006), p.144.

29. See, in particular, ‘Al-‘Asr al-Amirki: Ma Hiya Hududuh’[The American Era: What are its Limits?], Al-Nahar, 11 May 2005, reprinted in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.203–6.

30. ‘Thaqafa al-‘Unf wa-Hadaratuh’[The Culture and Civilization of Violence], Al-Nahar, 24 June 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.255–9.

31. ‘Al-qatl al-Hadari’.

32. ‘Wuhush min al-Bashar’[Human Beasts], Al-Safir, 24 Jan. 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.27–31.

33. ‘Kharita al-Tariq hal hiya Nihayat al-Tariq’[Is the Road Map the End of the Road?], Al-Safir, 3 May 2003, reprinted in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.199–202.

34. See, inter alia, ‘Al-Qadiya al-‘Arabiya ba‘da al-harb ‘ala al-‘Iraq’; ‘Hal al-Umma’[State of the Nation], Public address made at the opening of the Arab National Conference, Beirut 19 April 2004, published in Sawt bila Sada, pp.353–9.

35. See, inter alia, ‘Harb al-Alf Sana’[The Millennial War], Al-Nahar, 4 Nov. 2003, reprinted in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.256–60; ‘Bayn al-Taswiya wa al-Salam’[(The Difference] between Settlement and Peace], Al-Nahar, 20 Jan. 2004, reprinted in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.281–4; and ‘Al-Hawiya wa al-Qadiya’[The (Arab) Identity and the (Arab) Cause], Address to the opening of the National Islamic Conference, Beirut, 1 Dec. 2004, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.297–304; and ‘‘Awda ila Haq al-‘Awda’[Back to the Right of Return], Undelivered address printed in Silah al-Mawqif, pp.93–6.

36. ‘Filistin min al-Nakba ila al-Dawla’[Palestine: From Calamity to Statehood], Public address made on 15 April 2003, printed in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.207–11.

37. See, in particular, ‘The Only Alternative’, Al-Ahram, 1–7 March 2001, and Al-Hayat, 2 March 2001, reprinted in E. Said, From Oslo to Iraq and the Road Map (New York: Pantheon Books, 2004), pp.48–51.

38. ‘George W. Sharon’, Al-Nahar 10 Feb. 2004, reprinted in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.289–93.

39. ‘Al-Sawt al-‘Arabi fi al-Intikhabat al-Amirkiya’, p.179.

40. For reference to this term see ‘Yaum al-Wafa’ li-Filistin’[The Day we Remember Palestine], Al-Nahar, 11 April 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.365–9.

41. This seems to be Hoss's position in ‘Ihtilal al-‘Iraq wa Tada’iyatuh’[Iraq's Occupation and its Repercussions], Public address on 8 March 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.391–4. See also ‘Masir al-‘Arab Yuktab fi al-‘Iraq’[The Destiny of the Arabs is being Written in Iraq], Al-Safir, 19 March 2006, reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif, pp.125–30.

42. ‘Mushkilatuna ma ‘al-Dimuqratiya al-Amirkiya’[Our Dilemma with American Democracy], Al-Nahar, 24 Aug. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.149–53.

43. Hoss was a mild critic of the regime of Saddam Hussein before it fell; but in the wake of the US occupation of Iraq, he unleashed his anger at the fallen regime largely because it proved incapable of repelling the invading forces. See, inter alia, ‘Umma al-Arab ila Ayn’[Where is the Arab Nation Heading], Public address delivered to the Greek Orthodox Club in ‘Amman, Jordan on 7 Dec. 2004, published in Sawt bila Sada, pp.395–410; and ‘Hal Yajr’un ‘ala Muhakamat Saddam?’[Do they Dare to Try Saddam?], Al-Nahar, 27 April 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.343–6.

44. See, inter alia, ‘Umma al-‘Arab ila Ayn’.

45. ‘Al-Qadiya al-‘Arabiya ba’da al-harb ‘ala al-‘Iraq’; see also ‘Lahum Qiyamuhum wa-lana Qiyamana’[They have their Values and we have Ours], Al-Nahar, 19 Oct. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.51–9.

46. ‘Al-Qadiya al-‘Arabiya ba’da al-harb ‘ala al-‘Iraq’.

47. ‘Al-Muqawama fi Bu‘dayha al-Watani wa al-Qawmi’, p.103. Speech delivered at the opening of the conference on the culture of resistance, reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif, pp.102–4

48. Hoss, and countless other Arab writers, jumped on the statement made by quickly accepting the allegation that the Bush administration was working for ‘creative or destructive chaos’ in the Middle East to promote its goals. See, in particular, ‘Al-Irhab wa ma-Adraka Ma al-Irhab’.

49. ‘Nida’ ila al-Muwatin al-‘Arabi’[An appeal to the Arab Citizen], Beirut, 12 Oct. 2003, reprinted in Usara al-‘Umr, pp.245–7.

50. ‘Al-Dawla al-Amniya: Zar‘ wa Hisad’[The Security State: What we Plant and what we Harvest], Al-Safir, 29 March 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.155–9.

51. ‘Kayf Naqul ma la Yuqal’[How to Say that which cannot be Said], Al-Safir, 7 March 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.143–7.

52. ‘Ummat al-‘Arab ila Ayn’[Where is the Arab Nation Heading?], published in Sawt bila Sada, pp.395–410.

53. Praising the Iraqi resistance to the US occupation, he writes: ‘[Iraqi] resistance has inflicted defeat on the superpower, which manifests itself in the precarious position of the administration inside the United States and before the international community, and subsequently the intensification of calls for the withdrawal of the occupation forces.’Al-Safir, 29 April 2006, reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif, p.7.

54. ‘Dawr Yabhath ‘an Batal’[A Role Seeking a Hero], Al-Safir, 27 June 2006, reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif, p.16.

55. ‘Al-Qatl al-Hadari’.

56. Ibid.

57. ‘Man Yadfa‘ al-Thaman’[Who Pays the Price], Al-Safir, 10 May 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.91–5.

58. Al-Nahar, 16 Oct. 2006, p.3.

59. The publication in Arabic translation of the leaked text of the Initiative in the London-based Al-Hayat newspaper (13 Feb. 2004, p.10) triggered an avalanche of critical editorials and opinion pieces from hundreds of Arab intellectuals. For a critical review of Arab intellectuals' reactions to the GMEI see S.E. Baroudi, ‘Arab Intellectuals and the Greater Middle East Initiative’, Paper submitted to the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, San Diego, United States, 22–25 March 2006.

60. ‘Hal al-Umma’. See also ‘al-Muqawama fi Bu’dayha al-Watani wa al-Qawmi’[Resistance in its National and Pan-Arabist Dimensions], Address delivered at the opening of the conference on the culture of resistance, Beirut, 23 May 2006, reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif, p.103.

61. ‘Thughar I‘lamiyah fi Taswiq Qadayana’[Media Glitches in how we Promote our Causes], Al-Nahar, 18 Jan. 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.239–43.

62. The text of the Resolution was accessed at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sc8181.doc.htm, 11 April 2006.

63. ‘Mu‘jabun bi-Amrika wa-Lakin’. For other criticisms of the Resolution see: ‘Bayan Wizari’[A Ministerial Statement], Al-Nahar, 28 Oct. 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada, pp.41–5; ‘Mas’ala Silah al-Muqawama: Kayf Yakun al-Makhraj’[A Proposed Solution to the Weapons of the Resistance], Al-Safir, 1 May 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.49–52.

64. ‘Man Yadfa‘ al-Thaman’.

65. See, in particular, ‘Tahadiyat wa-Qadaya’[Challenges and Causes], Al-Safir, 20 May 2005, reprinted in Ta‘alu ila Kalimat Sawa’, pp.43–8.

66. ‘Al-Muqawama fi Bu‘dayha al-Watani wa al-Qawmi’, p.105.

67. Hoss formed the ‘National Unity Forum’ (also known as the Third Force); which, he notes with some bitterness, was not taken seriously by the opposing political blocks or by the media. ‘Hal min Makan li-Quwa Thalitha?’[Is there Room for a Third Force?] Al-Safir, 20 may 2006, reprinted in Silah al-Mawqif, pp.79–83.

68. An enterprise of this magnitude requires a quantitative approach, primarily based on content analysis.

69. See, in particular, ‘Awlamat al-Qahr: al-Wilayat al-Mutahida wa al-‘Arab wa al-Muslimun Qabl wa ba‘da Ahdath September 2001[The Globalization of Oppression: The United States and the Arabs and Muslims before and after the Events of September 2001] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2002), p.98.

70. Ibid., p.89.

71. Ibid., p.89.

72. Ibid., pp.83–4.

73. Ibid., p.85.

74. Ibid., p.85.

75. Ibid., p.104.

76. Voltaire, Candide. Translated by John Butt (London: Penguin Classics, 1947), p.25.

77. ‘Awlamat al-Qahr, p.9.

78. Ibid., p.28; and Al-Muthaqafun al-‘Arab wa-Isra’il[Arab Intellectuals and Israel] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 1998).

79. See, in particular, Al-‘Awlama wa-Altanmiya al-‘Arabiya min Hamlat Napoleon ila Jawlat al-Urguay: 1798–1998[Globalization and Arab Development from the Conquest of Napoleon to the Uruguay Round: 1798–1998] (Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wihda al-‘Arabiya, 1999), esp. pp.34–8. Amin offered this analysis prior to the US invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq.

80. ‘Awlamat al-Qahr, pp.29–30.

81. Ibid., p.36.

82. Ibid., p.33.

83. Ibid., p.29.

84. Al-Mashriq al-‘Arabi wa al-Gharb[The Arab East and the West] (Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wihda al-‘Arabiya, 1979), p.75.

85. Al-Muthaqafun al-‘Arab wa-Isra’il, esp. pp.61–2.

86. ‘Awlamat al-Qahr, pp.130–48.

87. Ibid., pp.163–8.

88. Ibid., pp.38–49.

89. Ibid., p.40.

90. Al-Muthaqafun al-‘Arab wa-Isra’il, p.61.

91. ‘Asr al-Jamahir al-Ghafira: 1952–2002[The Era of Mass Publics: 1952–2002] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2002), p.150.

92. Al-‘Awlama wa-Altanmiya al-‘Arabiya min Hamlat Napoleon ila Jawlat al-Urguay.

93. ‘In Na‘man, Amrika, al-Islam wa al-Silah al-Nawawi: Hadir al-Sira’ wa Mustaqbalah ufi Dunyat al-‘Arab wa al-‘Ajam[The United States, Islam and Nuclear Weapons: Present Realities of the Conflict and its Future in the Land of the Arabs and the Persians] (Beirut: Sharika al-Matbu’at lil-Tawzi’ wa al-Nashr, 2006), esp. pp.31–6.

94. Ibid., esp. pp.31–6, 41–53.

95. Ibid., p.33.

96. Ibid., p.59.

97. J. al-Khazen, Al-Muhafizun al-Judud wa al-Masihiyun-Al-Sahyuniyun[The Neoconservatives and the Christian-Zionists] (Beirut: Dar al-Saqi, 2005), p.24.

98. Ibid., p.21.

99. R. Hilal, Al-Masih al-Yahudi wa-Nihayat al-‘Alam: Al-Masihiya al-Siyasiya wa a-Usuliya fi Amrika[The Jewish Christ and the End of the World: Politicized and Fundamentalist Christianity in America] (Cairo: Maktaba al-Shuruq, 2001).

100. Ibid., p.17. See also p.44.

101. Ibid., p.45.

102. Ibid., pp.137, 146–7.

103. K. al-Jarad, Ab‘ad al-Istihdaf al-Amirki[The Dimensions of the American Targeting] (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 2004), esp. pp.10–65.

104. Ibid., pp.67–114.

105. Ibid., pp.19–20, 21, 22 respectively.

106. See, inter alia, S. Faqih, Man Yahkum Amrika: Al-Lobiyat al-Hakima wa Aliyat Sun’ al-Qarar[Who Governs America: Dominant Lobbies and the Mechanisms of Decision-making] (Beirut: Dar al-Qalam Lil-Tiba’a wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2005).

107. M. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘Ala al-Islam[It is Indeed a War on Islam] (Cairo: Maktaba Madbouli, 2002).

108. Ibid., p.8.

109. Ibid., pp.31–101.

110. Ibid., pp.11–12, 22–3.

111. Ibid., p.22. The influence of the Quran, and in particular Sura al-Baqara[The Cow], verses 5 to 20, is evident in this passage.

112. Ibid., pp.26–7.

113. J.H. ‘Atrissi, Uful Naghm al-Imbraturiya al-Amerkiya, Bayn al-Tawarrut al-‘Alami wa al-Qiyada al-Munfarida: Bidaya Zhuhur al-Qutbiya al-Thuna’iya[The Demise of the American Empire, between International Entanglements and Unilateral Leadership: The Emergence of Bipolarity] (Beirut: Dar al-Mahaja al-Baida’, 2005).

114. As an Islamist thinker, ‘Atrisi rejects bonds based on ethnicity or nationalism and emphasizes the religious bond that ties together members of the Muslim Umma.

115. ‘Atrissi, Uful Naghm al-Imbraturiya al-Amerkiya, p.13.

116. Ibid., p.14.

117. R. Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

118. G. Modelski, Long Cycles in World Politics (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1987).

119. W.R. Thompson, On Global War: Historical-Structural Approaches to World Politics (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988).

120. J. Goldstein, Long Cycles: Prosperity and War in the Modern Age (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1988).

121. P. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York: Random House, 1987).

122. ‘Atrissi, Uful Naghm al-Imbraturiya al-Amerkiya, pp.42–3.

123. Ibid., p.60.

124. Ibid., p.63.

125. Ibid., p.49.

126. A.H. Shehade, Mughamarat Hizb Allah[Hezbollah's Adventures] (Beirut: Al-Adyan lil-Dirasat wa al-Tawthiq, 2006), pp.68, 69.

127. Ibid., pp.82, 142, 143, 149.

128. M.‘A.B. al-‘Amili, Al-Islam, Al-Irhab wa al-Salam[Islam, Terrorism and Peace] (Beirut, Dar al-Mahaja al-Baida’, 2006), p.338.

129. M.H. Fadlallah, Ida‘at Islamiyah[Islamic Enlightenments] (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar lil-Nashr, 2003).

130. Ibid., p.27.

131. Ibid. pp.61–5.

132. Ibid., pp.76–8.

133. Ibid., pp.54–60, 110–11.

134. Ibid., pp.28–9.

135. He thus refuses to depict the conflict as an Islamic Jihad to counter an American or Western crusade. See, in particular, pp.85–6, 104–5.

136. Al-Muthaqafun al-‘Arab wa-Isra’il, esp. pp.5, 16–17.

137. A. AbuKhalil, Bin Laden, Islam and America's New War on Terrorism (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002), p.11.

138. The novels of the renowned Lebanese writer, Rasid Daif, are a case in point. Daif maintains that as a novelist his aim is to entertain his readers and not to win them over to one cause or another. Personal communication with author. See also Aghacy's critical review of Daif's autobiographical novel Dear Mr. Kawabata. S. Aghacy, ‘Contemporary Lebanese Fiction: Modernization without Modernity’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.38, No.4 (Nov. 2006), pp.561–80.

139. Na‘man, Amrika, al-Islam wa al-Silah al-Nawawi, p.66.

140. On the socially integrative role of shared ideas Wendt writes: ‘[T]he structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas rather than material forces, and … the identities and interests of purposive actors are constructed by these shared ideas rather than given by nature.’ A. Wendt Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.1.

141. Radu makes essentially the same point about Latin American intellectuals. M. Radu, ‘A Matter of Identity: The Anti-Americanism of Latin American Intellectuals’, in M. Hollander (ed.), Understanding Anti-Americanism: Its Origins and Impact at Home and Abroad (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2004), pp.144–64.

142. C. Reus-Smit, ‘Constructivism’, in S. Burchill et al. (eds.), Theories of International Relations, 3rd edn (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp.189–212.

143. E. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1979).