‘Is the Turk a White Man?’ Towards a Theoretical Framework for Race in the Making of Turkishness

Abstract

Drawing on critical whiteness studies, this article explores the role of race in the formation and maintenance of Turkish identity. The aim is to make connections across time (between contemporary Turkey and its past), space (placing the Turkish experience within a transnational context), and theoretical perspectives (investigating questions arising from the framework of whiteness within the context of Turkey). I argue that the literature of nationalism alone cannot illuminate the significance of racial vocabularies in early republican (1923–50) and contemporary Turkey. In criticizing current approaches that ignore the reality of race in Turkey, this article proposes a theoretical perspective in which race and whiteness emerge as a decisive component of Turkish modernity. Taking race seriously not only helps us to understand the Turkish experience of modernization but also extends theories of race. The article presents the manifestations of racial vocabularies in terms of immutability and chromatism as embedded in Turkish identity.

Notes

1. E. Kalkan, ‘Sabiha Gökçen Mi Hatun Sebilciyan Mı’, Hürriyet, 21 February 2004.

2. D. Karaosmanoğlu, ‘Modası Geçmiş Irkçılık Manzaraları’, Radikal, 7 March 2004, p.6.

3. Ö. Yılmaz, ‘Ermeni İddiasını, İlk Uçuş Tarihi Çürüttü’, Milliyet, 23 February 2004; H. Tekin, ‘Sabiha Gökçen Tartışmasında Kim Ne Yazdı’, Hürriyet Pazar, 29 February 2004, p.6.

4. ‘Is the Turk a White Man?’The New York Times, 30 September 1909, p.8.

5. N. Maksudyan, TürklüğüÖlçmek: Bilimkurgusal Antropoloji ve Türk Milliyetçiliğinin IrkçıÇehresi 1925–1939 (Istanbul: Metis, 2005).

6. A. Aktar, ‘Kemalistlerin Irkçılığı Meselesi’, Radikal Kitap, 15 July 2005; U. Özkırımlı, ‘Maksudyan'da Yeni Birşey Yok’, Radikal Kitap, 5 August 2005; S. Sökmen, ‘Irkçılık, Bir Bakış Açısı ve Dünyayı Yorumlama Tarzıdır’, Radikal Kitap, 26 August 2005; K. Varol, ‘Türk’ün Antropoloji İle İmtihanı’, Radikal Kitap, 1 July 2005.

7. A. Bonnett, White Identities: Historical and International Perspectives (Harlow and New York: Prentice Hall, 2000); A.W. Marx, Making Race and Nation: A Comparison of South Africa, the United States, and Brazil (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

8. B. Blauner, Still the Big News: Racial Oppression in America, Rev. and expanded ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); E. Bonilla-Silva, White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era (Boulder, CO: L. Rienner, 2001); H.L. Dalton, ‘Failing to See’, in Paula S. Rothenberg (ed.), White Privilege: Essential Readings on the Other Side of Racism (New York: Worth, 2002); C. Herring, V. Keith and H.D. Horton, Skin Deep: How Race and Complexion Matter in the ‘Color-Blind’ Era (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003).

9. K. Crenshaw et al., Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement (New York: New Press, 1995).

10. For examples of the latter, see G.W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954); P.R. Ehrlich and S.S. Feldman, The Race Bomb: Skin Color, Prejudice, and Intelligence (New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co., 1977); J.M. Jones, Prejudice and Racism (Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1972).

11. A. Aktar, Varlık Vergisi ve ‘Türkleştirme’ Politikaları (Istanbul: İletişim, 2000), pp.89–99; Ç. Keyder, State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development (London and New York: Verso, 1987), pp.107–9.

12. Aktar, Varlık Vergisi ve ‘Türkleştirme’ Politikaları; R.N. Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri: Bir Türkleştirme Serüveni (Istanbul: İletişim, 1999).

13. G.G. Özdoğan, ‘Turan'dan ‘Bozkurt'a: Tek Parti Döneminde Türkçülük (1931–1946) (Istanbul: İletişim, 2001); U. Uzer, ‘Racism in Turkey: The Case of Huseyin Nihal Atsiz’, Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol.22, No.1 (2002), pp.119–30.

14. Özdoğan, ‘Turan'dan ‘Bozkurt'a: Tek Parti Döneminde Türkçülük (1931–1946).

15. M.Ş. Başoğlu, Irk Psikolojisi (Istanbul: Üniversite Kitabevi, 1943).

16. E. Copeaux, Tarih Ders Kitaplarında (1931–1993) Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk-İslam Sentezine, trans. Ali Berktay (Istanbul: Türk Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1998).

17. E. Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); S.J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1981).

18. M. Yeğen, ‘Citizenship and Ethnicity in Turkey’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.40, No.6 (2004), pp.51–66; S. Çağaptay, ‘Population Resettlement and Immigration Policies of Interwar Turkey: A Study of Turkish Nationalism’, The Turkish Studies Association Bulletin, Vol.25–26, No.1–2 (2002), pp.1–24; İ. Aytürk, ‘Turkish Linguists Against the West: The Origins of Linguistic Nationalism in Atatürk's Turkey’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.40, No.6 (2004), pp.1–25; M. Baer, ‘The Double Bind of Race and Religion: The Conversion of the Dönme to Turkish Secular Nationalism’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol.46, No.4 (2004), pp.682–708; Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri; S. Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who Is a Turk? (London and New York: Routledge, 2006); K. Kirişçi, ‘Disaggregating Turkish Citizenship and Immigration Practices’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.36, No.3 (2000), pp.1–22; B. Oran, Atatürk Milliyetçiliği: Resmi İdeoloji Dışı Bir İnceleme (Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1990); T. Parla and A. Davison, Corporatist Ideology in Kemalist Turkey (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2004); A. Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene: Türk Ulusal Kimliğinin Etno-Seküler Sınırları (1919–1938) (Istanbul: İletişim, 2001).

19. S. Deringil, ‘The Ottoman Origins of Kemalist Nationalism: Namik Kemal to Mustafa Kemal’, European History Quarterly, Vol.23 (1993), pp.165–91; E.J. Zürcher, ‘Kemalist Düşüncenin Osmanlı Kaynakları’, in A. İnsel (ed.), Kemalizm, Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce (Istanbul: İletişim, 2001).

20. B. Isyar, ‘The Origins of Turkish Republican Citizenship: The Birth of Race’, Nations and Nationalism, Vol.11, No.3 (2005), pp.343–60.

21. Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk-İslam Sentezine, p.23.

22. J.M. Landau, Pan-Turkism in Turkey: A Study in Irredentism (London: C. Hurst, 1981); F. Georgeon, Türk Milliyetçiliğinin Kökenleri: Yusuf Akçura (1876–1935), trans. A. Er, 3rd ed. (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1999); D. Kushner, The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876–1908 (London: Frank Cass, 1977).

23. M. Arai, Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Era (Leiden and New York: E.J. Brill, 1992); Y. Akçura, Türkçülüğün Tarihi (Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 1998 (1928)).

24. T.O.T.T. Heyeti, Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları (Istanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1931), p.1.

25. The thesis, formulated in the early 1930s, canonized in the second Congress of Turkish History in 1937. For the proceedings of the congress, see T.T. Kurumu, İkinci Türk Tarih Kongresi (İstanbul 20–25 Eylül 1937): Kongrenin Çalişmaları, Kongreye Sunulan Tebliğler (Istanbul: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 1943).

26. The theory was presented in the third Congress of Turkish Language in 1936. For the proceedings of the congress, see: Türk Dil Kurumu, Üçüncü Türk Dil Kurultayı (1936): Tezler Müzakere Zabıtları (Istanbul: Devlet Basımevi, 1937).

27. R. Galip, ‘Türk Irk ve Medeniyet Tarihine Umumi Bir Bakış’, Birinci Türk Tarih Kongresi: Konferanslar, Müzakere Zabıtları (Ankara: Maarif Vekaleti, 1932), p.103.

28. S. Akdik, Genetik Bilgisinin Biyolojik, Ekonomik ve Ulusal Bakımdan Ehemmiyeti, Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi Yayını Konferanslar Seri: 1 Kitap: 11 (Ankara: Ankara Halkevi, 1938), p.18.

29. A. İnan, L'Anatolie, le Pays de la ‘Race’ Turque: Researches sur les Caracteres Anthropologiques des Populations de la Turquie (Geneve: Imprimerie Albert Kundig, 1939).

30. A. İnan, Türk Halkının Antropolojik Karakterleri ve Türkiye Tarihi: Türk Irkının Vatanı Anadolu, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınlarından VII Seri, No.15 (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1947).

31. Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri.

32. Kirişçi, ‘Disaggregating Turkish Citizenship and Immigration Practices’.

33. M.Ç. Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları (Istanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2004), pp.129–55.

34. Yeğen, ‘Citizenship and Ethnicity in Turkey’; Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene.

35. R. Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

36. S. Cornell and D. Hartmann, Ethnicity and Race: Making Identities in a Changing World (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1998).

37. Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who Is a Turk?

38. M.A. Tamanoi, ‘Knowledge, Power, and Racial Classification: The “Japanese” in “Manchuria”’, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.59, No.2 (2000), pp.248–76.

39. E. Balibar and I.M. Wallerstein, Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities (London and New York: Verso, 1991).

40. A. Memmi, Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000).

41. G.L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism, 2nd ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985); Marx, Making Race and Nation; Balibar and Wallerstein, Race, Nation, Class; K.A. Manzo, Creating Boundaries: The Politics of Race and Nation (Boulder, CO: L. Rienner, 1996); A. McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995); N.L. Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press, 1991).

42. Balibar and Wallerstein, Race, Nation, Class, p.46.

43. D.T. Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1993), p.81.

44. Manzo, Creating Boundaries, p.3.

45. Ibid., p.19.

46. P. Gilroy, Small Acts: Thoughts on the Politics of Black Cultures (London: Serpent's Tail, 1993).

47. P. Ratcliffe, ‘Conceptualizing “Race”, Ethnicity and Nation: Towards a Comparative Perspective’, in P. Ratcliffe (ed.), ‘Race’, Ethnicity and Nation: International Perspectives on Social Conflict (London: UCL Press, 1994), p.4.

48. E. Gellner, ‘The Turkish Option in a Comparative Perspective’, in S. Bozdogan and R. Kasaba (ed.), Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1997), pp.233–51; E. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983); E. Gellner, Encounters with Nationalism (Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); E.J. Hobsbawm and T.O. Ranger, The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); T. Nairn, Faces of Nationalism: Janus Revisited (London and New York: Verso, 1997).

49. Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse? (London and Totowa, NJ: Zed Books, 1986).

50. L. Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).

51. Gellner, Encounters with Nationalism, pp.81–2.

52. A. Akman, ‘Milliyetçilik Kuramında Etnik/Sivil Milliyetçilik Karşıtlığı’, in T. Bora (ed.), Milliyetçilik, Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce (Istanbul: İletişim, 2002), pp.81–90; A. Akman, ‘Modernist Nationalism: Statism and National Identity in Turkey’, Nationalities Papers, Vol.32, No.1 (2004), pp.23–15.

53. E.J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 1993), p.2.

54. M. Spohn, Alles getürkt: 500 Jahre (Vor)Urteile der Deutschen über die Türken (Oldenburg: Bibliotheks- u. Informationssystem der Carl von Ossietzky-Universität Oldenburg, 1993); J.L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp.40–42; J.W. Bohnstedt, The Infidel Scourge of God: The Turkish Menace as Seen by German Pamphleteers of the Reformation (Philadelphia: 1968); A. Cirakman, From the ‘Terror of the World’ to the ‘Sick Man of Europe’: European Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth (New York: P. Lang, 2002); C.D. Rouillard, The Turk in French History, Thought and Literature (1520–1660) (Paris: Boivin & Cie, 1938); A.N. St. Clair, The Image of the Turk in Europe (New York: 1973); J.M.V. Lippe, ‘The “Terrible Turk”: The Formulation and Perpetuation of a Stereotype in American Foreign Policy’, New Perspectives on Turkey, No.17 (1997), pp.39–57.

55. For examples, see C.M. Tobin, Turkey: Key to the East (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1944); H. Armstrong, Turkey in Travail: The Birth of a New Nation (London: John Lane The Bodley Head Ltd., 1925); H. Armstrong, Turkey and Syria Reborn: A Record of Two Years of Travel (London: John Lane The Bodley Head Ltd., 1930); D.E. Webster, The Turkey of Ataturk (Philadelphia: The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1939).

56. T. Akçam, ‘Türk Ulusal Kimliği Üzerine Bazı Tezler’, in T. Bora (ed.), Milliyetçilik, Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce (Istanbul: İletişim, 2002), p.55.

57. M.S. Engin, Kemalizm İnkılabının Prensipleri: Büyük Türk Medeniyetinin Tarihi ve Sosyolojik Tetkikine Methal, 2 vols. (Istanbul: Cumhuriyet Matbaası, 1938), p.3.

58. R. Robertson, ‘Social Theory, Cultural Relativity and the Problem of Globality’, in A.D. King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity (New York: SUNY Press, 1991), pp.69–90.

59. N. İrem, ‘Turkish Conservative Modernism: Birth of a Nationalist Quest for Cultural Renewal’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.34, No.1 (2002), pp.87–112.

60. Goldberg, Racist Culture, p.28.

61. Ibid., p.4.

62. B. Ersanlı, ‘The Ottoman Empire in the Historiography of the Kemalist Era: A Theory of Fatal Decline’, in F. Adanır and S. Faroqhi (ed.), The Ottomans and the Balkans: A Discussion of Historiography (Leiden: Brill, 2002), pp.115–54.

63. N. Göle, ‘Batı Dışı Modernlik: Kavram Üzerine’, in U. Kocabaşoğlu (ed.), Modernleşme ve Batıcılık, Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce (Istanbul: İletişim, 2002), pp.56–67.

64. Aytürk, ‘Turkish Linguists Against the West’; S. Çağaptay, ‘Race, Assimilation and Kemalism: Turkish Nationalism and the Minorities in the 1930s’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.40, No.3 (2004), pp.86–101.

65. Çağaptay, ‘Race, Assimilation and Kemalism’, p.97.

66. D. Schnapper, ‘Beyond the Opposition: Civic Nation Versus Ethnic Nation’, in J. Couture, K. Nielsen and M. Seymour (ed.), Rethinking Nationalism (Calgary, Alberta, Canada: University of Calgary Press, 1998), pp.219–36; W. Kymlicka, ‘Misunderstanding Nationalism’, Dissent (Winter 1995), pp.130–8; U. Özkırımlı, Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Engagement (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); B. Yack, ‘The Myth of the Civic Nation’, Critical Review, Vol.10, No.2 (1996), pp.193–212.

67. A. Alemdaroğlu, ‘Politics of the Body and Eugenic Discourse in Early Republican Turkey’, Body & Society, Vol.11, No.3 (2005), pp.414–21.

68. E. Bonilla-Silva, ‘Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation’, American Sociological Review, Vol.62, No.3 (1997), pp.465–80; G. Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit From Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998); A.W. Doane and E. Bonilla-Silva (eds.), White Out: The Continuing Significance of Racism (New York: Routledge, 2003); E. Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2003); R. Delgado and J. Stefancic (eds.), Critical White Studies: Looking Behind the Mirror (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997); C.I. Harris, ‘Whiteness as Property’, Harvard Law Review, Vol.106, No.8 (1993), pp.1710–91; D.R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class, Rev. ed. (London and New York: Verso, 1999).

69. Cf. M. Burawoy, ‘The Extended Case Method’, Sociological Theory, Vol.16, No.1 (1998), pp.63–92.

70. Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists; M. Barker, The New Racism: Conservatives and the Ideology of the Tribe (London: Junction Books, 1981); L. Bobo and R. Smith, ‘From Jim Crow Racism to Laissez-Faire Racism: The Transformation of Racial Attitudes’, in W.F. Katkin, N. Landsman, and A. Tyree (eds.), Beyond Pluralism: The Conception of Groups and Group Identities in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998).

71. P. Batur-Vanderlippe, ‘Centering on Global Racism and Antiracism: From Everyday Life to Global Complexity’, Sociological Spectrum, Vol.19, No.4 (1999), p.470.

72. F. Altaylı, ‘Emre Irkçı Mı?’Sabah, 14 January 2007, p.21; O. Eğin, ‘Türklerden IrkçıÇıkmaz’, Akşam, 31 January 2007, p.4.

73. H.K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 1994); S. Hall, ‘Introduction: Who Needs “Identity”?’ in S. Hall and P. Du Gay (eds.), Questions of Cultural Identity (London and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996).

74. V.R. Berghahn and H. Schissler, ‘Introduction: History Textbooks and Perceptions of the Past’, in V.R. Berghahn and H. Schissler (eds.), Perceptions of History: International Textbook Research on Britain, Germany, and the United States (Leamington Spa and New York: Berg, 1987), pp.1–16.

75. P.M. Kennedy, ‘The Decline of Nationalistic History in the West, 1900–1970’, Journal of Contemporary History, No.1 (1973), pp.77–100.

76. B. Ersanlı-Behar, İktidar ve Tarih: Türkiye'de ‘Resmi Tarih’ Tezinin Oluşumu (1929–1937) (Istanbul: Afa Yayınları, 1992); T. Bora, ‘Nationalism in Textbooks’, in D.T. Ceylan and G. Irzık (eds.), Human Rights Issues in Textbooks: The Turkish Case (Istanbul: The History Foundation of Turkey, 2004), pp.49–75; Copeaux, Türk Tarih Tezinden Türk-İslam Sentezine.

77. Bora, ‘Nationalism in Textbooks’, p.59.

78. E. Copeaux, ‘Türk Kimlik Söyleminin Topografyası ve Kronografisi’, in A. Berktay and H.C. Tuncer (eds.), Tarih Eğitimi ve Tarihte ‘Öteki’ Sorunu (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1998), p.73.

79. A. Mumcu and M.K. Su, Lise ve Dengi Okullar İçin Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İnkılap Tarihi ve Atatürkçülük (Ankara: MEB Yayınları, 2002), p.271, cited in Bora, ‘Nationalism in Textbooks’, p.58.

80. ‘Ata'nın Güneş Dil Teorisine Destek’, Sabah, 28 November 2003, p.24.

81. Cited in M.S. Gemalmaz, ‘Evaluation of Data Concerning Human Rights Criteria Obtained From a Survey of Textbooks’, in D.T. Ceylan and G. Irzık (eds.), Human Rights Issues in Textbooks: The Turkish Case (Istanbul: The History Foundation of Turkey, 2004), p.35.

82. R. Boztemur, ‘History Textbooks and Human Rights’, in Ceylan and Irzık (eds.), Human Rights Issues in Textbooks, p.135.

83. Bora, ‘Nationalism in Textbooks’; Gemalmaz, ‘Evaluation of Data’; S. Özbaran, ‘Türkiye'de Tarih Eğitimi ve Ders KitaplarıÜstüne Düşünceler’, in A. Berktay and H.C. Tuncer (eds.), Tarih Eğitimi ve Tarihte ‘Öteki’ Sorunu (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1998), pp.61–9.

84. A.G. Altınay, The Myth of the Military Nation: Militarism, Gender, and Education in Turkey (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).

85. Yeğen, ‘Citizenship and Ethnicity in Turkey’.

86. Baer, ‘The Double Bind of Race and Religion’.

87. M.A. Birand, ‘Azınlıklarımızı Neden Sevmiyoruz?’, Posta, 27 September 2006, p.15.

88. D. Kushner, ‘Self-Perception and Identity in Contemporary Turkey’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol.32, No.2 (1997), pp.226–8.

89. Bora, ‘Nationalism in Textbooks’, p.56.

90. A. Çınar, ‘Cartel: Travels of German-Turkish Rap Music’, Middle East Report, No.211 (1999), p.44.

91. ‘Türk Adaylara “Soykırım” Tırpanı’, Milliyet, 28 September 2006, p.1; ‘Türk Adaylara Ermeni Engeli’, Akşam, 28 September 2006, p.12.

92. A.J. Toynbee and K.P. Kenneth, Turkey (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1927), p.11.

93. K. Russell, M. Wilson and R.E. Hall, The Color Complex: The Politics of Skin Color among African Americans, 1st ed. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992); M. Hughes and B. Hertel, ‘The Significance of Color Remains: A Study of Life Chances, Mate Selection, and Ethnic Consciousness among Black Americans’, Social Forces, Vol.68, No.4 (1990), pp.1105–20; V.M. Keith and C. Herring, ‘Skin Tone and Stratification in the Black Community’, American Journal of Sociology, Vol.97, No.3 (1991), pp.760–78; M.E. Hill, ‘Color Differences in the Socioeconomic Status of African American Men: Results of a Longitudinal Study’, Social Forces, Vol.78, No.4 (2000), pp.1437–60.

94. E.E. Telles and E. Murguia, ‘Phenotypic Discrimination and Income Differences among Mexican Americans’, Social Science Quarterly, Vol.71, No.4 (1990), pp.682–96.

95. R. Hall, ‘The Bleaching Syndrome: African Americans’ Response to Cultural Domination vis-à-vis Skin Color’, Journal of Black Studies, Vol.26, No.2 (1995), pp.179–80.

96. Hughes and Hertel, ‘The Significance of Color’.

97. Ming-Bao Yue, ‘On Not Looking German: Ethnicity, Diaspora and the Politics of Vision’, European Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol.3, No.2 (2000), pp.173–94.

98. S. Ekrem, Unveiled: The Autobiography of a Turkish Girl (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1931), pp.260–61.

99. Y. Navaro-Yashin, Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), pp.90–91.

100. Ibid., p.101.

101. C. Hann and I. Beller-Hann, ‘Markets, Morality, and Modernity in North-East Turkey’, in T.M. Wilson and H. Donnan (ed.), Border Identities: Nation and State at International Frontiers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp.251–2.

102. E. Durugönül, ‘The Invisibility of Turks of African Origin and the Construction of Turkish Cultural Identity: The Need for a New Historiography’, Journal of Black Studies, Vol.33 (2003), pp.281–94.

103. T. Bora, ‘Nationalist Discourses in Turkey’, South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol.102, No.2/3 (2003), p.442.

104. Ibid., p.443.

105. A. Öncü, ‘The Myth of the “Ideal Home”: Travels Across Cultural Borders to Istanbul’, in A. Öncü and P. Weyland (eds.), Space, Culture and Power: New Identities in Globalizing Cities (London: Zed Books, 1997), pp.56–72.

106. E. Arslan, ‘Türkiye'de Irkçılık’, in T. Bora and M. Gültekingil (eds.), Milliyetçilik, Modern Türkiye'de Siyasi Düşünce (Istanbul: İletişim, 2002), p.425.

107. B. Sumer, ‘White vs. Black Turks: The Civilizing Process in Turkey in the 1990s’ (MA Thesis, Middle East Technical University, 2003).

108. R.N. Bali, Tarz-ı Hayat'tan Life Style'a: Yeni Seçkinler, Yeni Mekanlar, Yeni Yaşamlar (Istanbul: İletişim, 2002); C. Kozanoğlu, Pop Çağı Ateşi (Istanbul: İletişim, 1995).

109. E. Özkök, ‘Bu Yeni Türkler De Fazla Oluyorlar’, Hürriyet, 19 May 2000.

110. A. Günal, ‘Mine G. Kırıkkanat ve Beyaz Türk Oryantalizmi’, Birikim, No.144 (2001), pp.66–73.

111. M. Kırıkkanat, ‘The End’, Radikal, 18 July 2001; M. Kırıkkanat, ‘Gasp ve Kommünizm’, Radikal, 30 November 2001.

112. M. Kırıkkanat, ‘Halkımız Eğleniyor’, Radikal, 27 July 2005.

113. M. Kırıkkanat, ‘Mal Bulmuş Mağribi Gibi’, Radikal, 19 December 2004; Kırıkkanat, ‘Halkımız Eğleniyor’.

114. B. Yaghmaian, ‘Afrika Diasporası: Türkiye'deki Afrikalı Göçmenlerin Dramı’, Birikim: Aylık Sosyalist Kültür Dergisi, No.175–6 (2003), pp.140–8; A.F. Çalkıvık, ‘“Yaşam ve Ölüm Alanları’ Arasında Afrikalı Göçmenler’, Birikim, No.175–6 (2003), pp.149–52; P. Mağden, ‘“Yeni”Şehirli Türklerin Irkçılık Egzersizleri’, Radikal, 10 March 1999.

115. S. Turgut, ‘İşin Ters Gideceği Baştan Belliydi’, Akşam, 9 August 2006, p.5; S. Turgut, ‘Hayat Bir Talihsizlikler Kısırdöngüsüdür’, Akşam, 10 August 2006, p.5.

116. See, for example, F. Ercan, ‘Ne Hale Geldik’, Milliyet, 11 February 2000, p.34.

117. A. Kuseyri, ‘Pascal Irkçılıktan Çok Çekti’, Nokta, 19–25 April 2007, p.75.

118. ‘Football: Campbell Seeks Move After “Cannibal” Insult’, The Independent, 25 February 1999.

119. Baer, ‘The Double Bind of Race and Religion’; Çağaptay, ‘Race, Assimilation and Kemalism’.

120. M. Omi and H. Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 2nd ed. (New York and London: Routledge, 1994).

121. D.T. Goldberg, The Racial State (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2002); Goldberg, Racist Culture.

122. R. Jenkins, ‘Rethinking Ethnicity: Identity, Categorization and Power’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol.17, No.2 (1994), pp.197–223; M. Loveman, ‘Is “Race” Essential?’, American Sociological Review, Vol.64, No.6 (1999), pp.891–8.