The Nusayri Leader Isma‘il Khayr Bey and the Ottomans (1854–58)

Abstract

Isma'il Khayr Bey was an outstanding chief of the Matawira Nusayri/'Alawi tribe which during a short time succeeded in controlling a large heterogeneously populated region and gained himself a prestigious title as ‘governor of the mountain’. Though the Nusayris admired Isma'il for his courage they suffered from his oppressive rule. The local Muslim inhabitants of the mountain detested the fact that their governor was a Nusayri. The Ottomans were alarmed by Isma'il's growing status in the region and decided to put an end to his rule. The fact that Nusayri society lacked internal solidarity helped the Ottomans achieve their goal. Ultimately, Isma'il was killed by his own uncle.

Notes

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2. Authoritative opinions regarding points of Islamic law issued by a mufti of juries consult.

3. M.G. Al-Tawil, Tarikh al-‘alawiyin, 4th ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Andalus, 1981), pp.394–5.

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8. M. Al-Sharif, al-Muslimun al-‘alawiyun: man hum wa-ayna hum? (Beirut: Dar al-Balagh, 1994), pp.116–25.

9. No study has been made about Nusayri society in the nineteenth century. On Nusayri society in the twentieth century see J. Weulersse, Le Pays des Alaouites (Beirut: Institut Français de Damas, 1940); P. Jacquot, L'Etat des Alaouites (Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1929).

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14. Public Record Office, Foreign Office, 78/1116, Lyde to Moore, Mountains of Ladikieh, 1 September 1855 (hereafter FO).

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18. Douwes, ‘Knowledge and Oppression’, p.159.

19. Ma‘oz, p.110.

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21. Douwes, ‘Knowledge and Oppression’, p.160.

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25. Ismail had three brothers – Khayri, Dandash and Nasif.

26. Title of the Nusayri chieftains.

27. The Nusayris are divided into four tribes: the Khayyatin, Haddadin, Kalbiya and Matawira.

28. Douwes, ‘Knowledge and Oppression’, p.70.

29. Delibaşi – Commander of auxiliary forces.

30. Jabbour, p.612.

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33. Lyde, p.15.

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35. Ibid., p.391.

36. Ibid., p.392.

37. Hadikat al-Akhbar, 4 and 22 December 1858.

38. Lyde, p.15.

39. Dussaud, pp.35–7.

40. FO 78/1383, Abdallah to Sheikh Abbass, 20 August 1857.

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43. Farah, p.514.

44. FO 195/587, Moore to the Earl of Malmesbury, Beyrout, 13 May 1858.

45. FO 78/1386, Beyrout, 21 July 1858.

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48. Al-Mawrid al-Safi (Lebanon, 1926).

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50. Dussaud, p.33.

51. Serasker – commander in chief of the army.

52. P. al-Khazin and F. al-Khazin, Majmo‘at al-Muhararat al-Siyasiya wa-l-Mofawadat al-dawliya ‘an Soriya wa Lubnan min sanat 1849 ila sanat 1910 (Beyrouth, 1984), p.298.

53. FO 78/1388, Brant to Henry Bulwer, Damascus, 25 October 1858.

54. FO 195/587, Mercer to Moore, Beyrout, 26 October 1858.

55. Al-khazin, p.301.

56. BOA (Istanbul), A.}MKT.UM. No.337–3, 2 Cemâziyelevvel, 1275 [8 December 1858].

57. BOA (Istanbul), A}AMD. No. 83–17, 1 Zilhice, 1274 [13 July 1858].

58. Hadiqat al-Akhbar, 4 and 22 December 1858.

59. Dussaud, p.33.

60. H.H. Jessup, Fifty-three Years in Syria (New York: Fleming H. Revei Company, 1910), p.152.

61. Douwes, ‘Knowledge and Oppression’, p.160.

62. Ma‘oz, p.51.

63. FO 78/1389, Lattakia, 29 September 1858.

64. Jabbour, p.613.

65. Archive du Ministére des Affaires Étrangères, Nantes, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte no. 15, par Max Outrey, Damas, 24 October 1858 (hereafter AE).

66. Dussaud, p.37.

67. Farah, p.540.

68. FO 195/587, Moore to the Earl of Malmesbury, Beyrout, No.71, 23 November 1858.

69. Farah, p.540.

70. Jessup, p.152.

71. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte 9, No.15, par Max Outrey, Damas, 24 October 1858.

72. Ibid.

73. Mahmmud ‘Abbas al-Shimili, a prominent leader of the Matawira tribe, was born in Dir Mama (1887/88–1950), he wrote a manuscript of 196 pages describing the lives of Isma‘il and his son Hawash according to what he heard from different eyewitnesses.

74. FO 78/1389, Lattakia, 29 September 1858.

75. Ibid.

76. FO 195/587, Moore to the Earl of Malmesbury, Beyrout, 27 October 1858.

77. Al-khazin, p.341.

78. FO 78/1388, Brant to Henry Bulwer, Damascus, 25 October 1858.

79. K. Salibi and Y.K. Khoury, Reports from Ottoman Syria 1819–1870, Vol.3 (Amman: Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies, 1995), p.266, Vol.4, p.6; Lyde, p.18.

80. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte No.15, par Max Outrey, Damas, 24 October 1858.

81. FO 195/587, Mercer to Moore, Beyrout, 26 October 1858.

82. FO 195/587, Moore to the Earl of Malmesbury, Beyrout, 27 October 1858.

83. FO 195/587, Moore to Mercer, Beyrout, 27 October 1858.

84. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte 10, No.77, par Max Outrey, Damas, 28 October 1858.

85. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte 10, No.78, Max Outery à Shouvenel, Damas, 13 November 1858.

86. FO 195/1369, Tripoli, Blanche to Eldridge, 13 December 1881.

87. Ma‘oz, p.111.

88. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte 12, Damas, 22 November 1858.

89. Al-Khazin, p.364. Isma‘il was married twice and had three children – Hawash, ‘Abd al-Fatah and Safi.

90. FO 78/1388, Damascus, 16 November 1858.

91. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte 10, No.80, par Max Outrey, Damas, 27 November 1858.

92. Jessup, p.152.

93. Blanche, p.599.

94. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte 12, No.102, par Max Outrey, Damas, 27 October 1859.

95. Hadiqat al-Akhbar, 10 and 22 December 1858.

96. AE, Consulat de France à Damas, Côte 12, No.102, par Max Outrey, Damas, 27 October 1859.

97. Lyde, p.209.