The biology, ecology and history of toheroa (Paphies ventricosa): a review of scientific, local and customary knowledge

ABSTRACT

Toheroa (Paphies ventricosa) were formerly abundant on west and south-facing New Zealand surf beaches. Harvesting of this surf clam was intense during the early to mid-1900s, and populations declined to levels where harvesting was no longer viable. Despite having now been protected for 35–45 years, toheroa have failed to recover. This paper reviews the history of human interactions with toheroa and our understanding of their ecology, with a view to identifying knowledge requirements for management and restoration. Historical and legal documents pertaining to the use of marine resources are reviewed and scientific understanding compared with customary and local knowledge. We consider the factors that may be preventing toheroa recovery and make recommendations for research into life history, habitat requirements and the ecological consequences of changing land use. Management options are suggested to address the effects of vehicle use on beaches, poaching and the failings of the customary harvest system.

KEYWORDS:

• Bivalve
• habitat
• historical ecology
• human impacts
• hydrology
• New Zealand
• recruitment
• surf clam
• vehicle impacts

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the people of the toheroa beaches and the kaitiaki of the following iwi for their contributions to the research: Ngāi Tahu; Ngāti Raukawa; Ngāti Whātua; Ngāpuhi; Te Uri o Hau; Te Roroa; Te Rarawa; Te Aupouri; Ngāi Takoto and Ngāti Kuri.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This research was funded by the Royal Society of New Zealand’s Marsden Fund (contract number UOW 1503) and a University of Waikato Strategic Investment Fund Research Grant.