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Paedagogica Historica
International Journal of the History of Education
Volume 49, 2013 - Issue 3
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Articles

“Forging the Fatherland”: Work and vocational education in Argentina during Peronism (1944–1955)

Pages 382-401 | Received 25 Oct 2011, Accepted 17 Apr 2012, Published online: 24 Jul 2012
 

Abstract

This article focuses on the reforms in the field of vocational education, as well as on representations related to work, in Argentina during Perón’s political leadership. In the framework of far-reaching economic reforms and social transformations, while in the position of secretary of labour (1943–1945) Perón started a vocational education system, which grew notably during his presidency (1946–1952 and 1952–1955). At the same time, his government not only defined the worker as the protagonist of its policy but deliberately constructed and broadly disseminated positive representations of manual work, the worker, the apprentice and his training that were aimed at replacing older ones. After Perón’s overthrow in 1955, the succeeding governments brought the political centrality of the worker to an end and repressed all symbology related to him. In the following years, the vocational education system created during the Peronist era gradually fell apart.

This article analyses the relationship between these phenomena. It assumes that vocational education is not just shaped by economic demands or technological development. It rather believes that, as the analysis of the Peronist case shows, social representations related to work and education can also play an important role, supporting, hindering or impeding the establishment or development of specific vocational education models.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Nicolás Arata (Universidad de Buenos Aires and DIE/CINVESTAV, Mexico) for generously sharing some of the visual material included in this article.

Notes

1From a speech by Juan D. Perón from June 10, 1950, cited in República Argentina, Berufsertüchtigung des Arbeiters ([1952?]). Original in German. As in the case of the source of this quotation, the Peronist government translated some self-portrayal materials in other languages.

2Vocational education refers to preparation for specific manual or practical professions or occupations, such as craftsmen and skilled workers. Depending on the country, this kind of education is more or less formal and takes place at vocational schools, in the workplace or both. Vocational education is different from polytechnic education, which encompasses a broader and more theoretical scientific and technological preparation that usually takes place at secondary schools and colleges of higher education, aiming at qualifying technicians to plan and steer work processes.

3See discussion line from Gary S. Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964) to Alison Wolf, Does Education Matter? Myths about Education and Economic Growth (London: Penguin 2002).

4Klaus Harney and Heinz-Elmar Tenorth, “Berufsbildung und industrielles Ausbildungsverhältnis: Zur Genese, Formalisierung und Pädagogisierung beruflicher Ausbildung in Preussen bis 1914,” Zeitschrift für Pädagogik 32, no. 1 (1986): 9–14.

5See also Ute Clement, “Vom Sinn beruflicher Bildung: Zur Modellbildung in der vergleichenden Berufsbildungsforschung,” Zeitschrift für Berufs- und Wirtschaftspädagogik 6, no. 92 (1996): 617–626; Thomas Deißinger, Beruflichkeit als ‘organisierendes Prinzip’ der deutschen Berufsbildung (Marktschaben: Eusl, 1998); Klaus Harney, “Zum Beginn von Anfang und Ende: Tradition und Kontingenz der Berufsausbildung am Beispiel schwerindustrieller Betriebsformen,” in Zwischen Anfang und Ende. Fragen an die Pädagogik, ed. Niklas Luhmann and Karl Eberhard Schorr (Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1990), 206–227; Jürgen Schriewer, “Alternativen in Europa: Frankreich. Lehrlingsausbildung unter dem Anspruch von Theorie und Systematik,” in Sekundarstufe II – Jugendbildung zwischen Schule und Beruf, vol. 9 of Enzyklopädie Erziehungswissenschaft, ed. Herwig Blankertz et al. (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett, 1995), 250–285; Barbara Schulte, “Zur Rettung des Landes”. Bildung und Beruf im China der Republikzeit (Frankfurt a.M.: Campus, 2008).

6The comparative project focuses on the relationship between, on the one side, social representations related to professions, work and education and, on the other side, structures of vocational education in different historical and socio-cultural contexts, http://www.sfb-repraesentationen.de/teilprojekte/c2/english (accessed January 30, 2012).

7Walther L. Bernecker, “Die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung Lateinamerikas in der Neuzeit,” in Lateinamerika. Geschichte und Gesellschaft im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, ed. Kaller-Dietrich, Potthast and Tobler (Wien: Promedia, 2004), 55–76.

8Horacio Chitarroni Maceyra, El ciclo peronista: apogeo y crisis (Buenos Aires: Grupo Editor Universitario, 1997), 28; Pablo Gerchunoff and Lucas Llach, El ciclo de la ilusión y el desencanto: Un siglo de políticas económicas argentinas (Buenos Aires: Ariel, 1998), 143–144.

9Maria Seoane, Argentina: El siglo de progreso y la oscuridad (1900-2003) (Buenos Aires: Crítica, 2004), 66; Ruth A. García, “La década del Treinta,” in Argentina en busca de una nueva estabilidad (1930-1966), ed. Horacio Gaggero (Buenos Aires: Proyecto Editorial, 2005), 13, 16; Gerchunoff and Llach, El ciclo de la ilusión, 145; Chitarroni Maceyra, El ciclo peronista: apogeo y crisis, 31.

10See Peter Waldmann, Der Peronismus 1943-1955 (Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 1976); Mark Falcoff, “Was war der Peronismus von 1946-1955?,” Berichte zur Entwicklung in Spanien, Portugal, Lateinamerika 1, no. 4 (1976): 3–17; Robert A. Potash, El ejército y la política en la Argentina: 1928-1945(Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 1981); Miguel Murmis and Juan C. Portantiero, Estudios sobre los orígenes del peronismo (Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 2004); Horacio Gaggero, “La etapa populista (1943-1955),” in Argentina en busca de una nueva estabilidad (1930-1966), ed. Horacio Gaggero (Buenos Aires: Proyecto Editorial, 2005), 47–82.

11See Ernst Jünger, Der Arbeiter (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett, 1981), 78.

12See Chitarroni Maceyra, El ciclo peronista, 32–35; Seoane, Argentina, 75.

13See Potash, El ejército y la política en la Argentina.

14Mónica E. Rein, Politics and Education in Argentina, 1946-1962 (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1998), 19.

15See Gerchunoff and Llach, El ciclo de la ilusión, 170.

16See Raúl A. Mende, Der Justizialismus: Peronistische Doktrin und Tatsache (Buenos Aires: Imprenta López,1952); Cristian Buchrucker, Nationalismus, Faschismus und Peronismus 1927-1955: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichteder politischen Ideen in Argentinien (PhD diss., Freie Universität Berlin, 1982), 444.

17See Buchrucker, Nationalismus, Faschismus und Peronismus 1927-1955, 439.

18George Mosse, Die Nationalisierung der Massen: Politische Symbolik und Massenbewegung von den Befreiungskriegen bis zum Dritten Reich (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 1993).

19Jürgen Schriewer, “‘Ceremonial Pedagogy’ in Revolutionary Societies: Public Staging and Aesthetic Mass Inculcation in Meiji Japan, the Early Soviet Union and Post-1910 Mexico,” in Remodelling Social Order through the Conquest of Public Space: Myths, Ceremonies and Visual Representations in Revolutionary Societies, ed. Jürgen Schriewer (Leipzig: Leipziger Univ.-Verl. 2009), 9, 12.

20See Verónica Oelsner, “Produzenten statt Parasiten” (Frankfurt a.M.: Peter Lang, forthcoming).

21See Juan Balduzzi, “Peronismo, saber y poder,” in Hacia una pedagogía de la imaginación para América Latina, ed. Puiggrós, José and Balduzzi (Buenos Aires: Editorial Contrapunto, 1988), 175, 191; David L. Wiñar, Poder político y educación: El peronismo y la Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional (Buenos Aires: Instituto Torcuato Di Tella, 1970), 32–36; Miguel Somoza Rodríguez, Educación y política en Argentina (1946-1955) (Buenos Aires: Miño y Dávila, 2006), 37–38.

22In turn, the development of vocational education surely reinforced these representations since it contributed to upgrading and dignifying manual work, workers, apprentices and their training.Explicit motives for the construction of such representations could not be traced back in this research, neither in the sources nor in the existing literature. Nevertheless, this article assumes that while the representations of work and the worker had, without a doubt, the more general purpose of moulding the identity of the working masses and winning them as the foundation of both governmental hegemony and planned industrialisation, the representations of the apprentice and his training were most likely also moulded in direct connection with the vocational education reforms.

23See Mariano Plotkin, Mañana es San Perón. Propaganda, rituales políticos y educación en el régimen peronista (1946-1955) (Buenos Aires: Ariel, 1993); Matthew B. Karush and Oscar Chamosa, eds., The New Cultural History of Peronism: Power and Identity in Mid-Twentieth-Century Argentina (Durham, NC and London: Duke University Press, 2010); Cecilia Pitelli and Miguel Somoza Rodríguez, “Peronismo: Notas acerca de la producción y el control de símbolos. La historia y sus usos,” in Discursos pedagógicos e imaginario social en el peronismo (1945-1955), ed. Adriana Puiggrós (Buenos Aires: Galerna, 1995), 205–258. For vocational education see Pablo Pineau, “Peronism, Secondary Schooling and Work (Argentina, 1944-1955): An Approach through Cultural Hierarchies,” Paedagogica Historica 40, no. 1 & 2 (2004): 183–191; Adriana Puiggrós and Rafael Gagliano, eds., La fábrica del conocimiento: los saberes socialmente productivos en América Latina (Rosario: Homo Sapiens, 2004).

24See Marcela Gené, Un mundo feliz. Imágenes de los trabajadores en el primer peronismo. 1946-1955 (Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2005).

25From a speech of Perón in 1953 at an event for apprentices, in Juan D. Perón, Obras Completas, vol. XVII, 1 (Buenos Aires: Fundación pro Universidad de la Producción y del Trabajo – Fundación Universidad a Distancia “Hernandarias”, 1997), 334.

26See Gené, Un mundo feliz, 65.

27Eva Perón, La razón de mi vida, 9th ed. (Buenos Aires: Peuser, 1951), 276. See also Gené, Un mundo feliz, 130–140.

28The Peronist discourse portrayed the worker primarily as “shirtless” (descamisado). The shirtless embodiedin the first place the industrial worker, but sometimes also the rural helper, and often the worker in general as a hitherto socially excluded and disadvantaged individual (Gené, Un mundo feliz, 66). In the words of Perón, “the shirtless is a poor worker who has fought for an ideal for a long time and has achieved it”. In her speeches, Evita, the spouse of Perón, emphasised that “the working men and women are always and in the firstplace shirtless”, adding: “I see in each worker a shirtless and a Peronist” (Pitelli and Somoza Rodríguez, “Peronismo: Notas acerca de la producción y el control de símbolos,”, 210).

29See Congreso Nacional, Cámara de Diputados, vol. VI, 1946, 394–395. After the death of Evita in 1952, the government decided to also turn this monument into a mausoleum for her. In that way, according to the ideas after 1952, the statue should fulfil two functions: it should serve as a mausoleum for Evita and honour the workers at the same time. See Anahí Ballent, Las huellas de la política: vivienda, ciudad, peronismo en Buenos Aires, 1943-1955 (Bernal: Universidad Nacional de Quilmes – Prometeo, 2005), 177–178.

30 Panoramas de actualidad (Ciudad Eva Perón: A. Domínguez e Hijo, 1953-1954, Edición 6° Extraordinaria), 14.

31Presidencia de la Nación, Monumento a Eva Perón (Buenos Aires: 1955). Images of this model can also be found before 1955 in other publications.

33 El Líder, July 25, 1947, 12.

32 Panoramas de actualidad, 14.

34Congreso Nacional, Cámara de Diputados, vol. VI, 1946, 393; Panoramas de actualidad.

35María A. De Silveira, Forjando la patria: libro de lectura para tercer grado (Buenos Aires: Kapelusz, 1953), book cover; María L. Falcone, Madre Tierra: libro de lectura para cuarto grado (Buenos Aires: Estrada, 1955), 39, 51.

36Falcone, Madre Tierra, 37.

37Oelsner, “Produzenten statt Parasiten”.

38Juan D. Perón, El trabajo a través del pensamiento de Perón (Subsecretaría de Prensa y Difusión, 1955).

39Presidencia de la Nación, La Nación Argentina: justa, libre y soberana (Buenos Aires: Peuser, 1950), 154.

40Ministerio de Educación, Suplemento del Boletín de Informaciones 113, April 18, 1950, 4–6. The Workers Theatre, as many other cultural institutions of that time, was founded by the Peronist government to offer the workers entertainment and at the same time to instruct them and disseminate the government’s principles. See Yanina A. Leonardi, “Un teatro para los descamisados,” in telondefondo. Revista de teoría y crítica teatral 7 (2008), http://www.telondefondo.org/numeros-anteriores/numero7/articulo/131/un-teatro-para-los-descamisados.html (accessed September 19, 2011).

41Ministerio de Educación, Suplemento del Boletín de Informaciones 113, April 18, 1950, 5; block capitals in original.

42Ministerio de Educación, Suplemento del Boletín de Informaciones 113, April 18, 1950, 2.

43Ministerio de Educación, Suplemento del Boletín de Informaciones 113, April 18, 1950, 1–2.

44Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Canción del Aprendiz,” Aprendizaje, no. 2, May 1952, 25.

45Hilda Sábato and Luis A. Romero, Los trabajadores de Buenos Aires: La experiencia del mercado: 1850-1880 (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1992).

46Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “El día del aprendiz,” Aprendizaje, no. 2, May 1952, 1.

47Although there were some women apprentices who, as an example below shows, were included in ceremonial practices, the apprentice discourse and the corresponding representations were predominantly related to male youth. In front of apprentices of both sexes, Perón used to talk almost exclusively about “young men” (muchachos). Also in the graphic material, the apprentice is usually a male figure (see, for instance, the covers of the magazine Aprendizaje).

48Perón, Obras Completas, 333.

49Perón, Obras Completas, 334.

50Decree no. 8487, April 23, 1945.

51República Argentina, Boletín Oficial, May 3, 1945.

52Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “La celebración del Día del Aprendiz,” Aprendizaje, no. 8, 1953, 5.

55Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Los actos realizados en la Capital Federal el Día del Aprendiz,” 16.

56Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Los actos realizados en la Capital Federal el Día del Aprendiz,” 15.

53Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Los actos realizados en la Capital Federal el Día del Aprendiz,” Aprendizaje, no. 3, June 1952, 16.

54Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Los actos realizados en la Capital Federal el Día del Aprendiz,” 15.

57Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “La celebración del Día del Aprendiz,” 4.

58Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Entrega de diplomas a los primeros egresados del ciclo técnico,” Aprendizaje, no. 6, [1953?], 6.

59About the inversion of knowledge hierarchies during the Peronist governments see also Pineau, “Peronism, Secondary Schooling and Work (Argentina, 1944-1955).”

60Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Día del Aprendiz,” Aprendizaje, no. 3, June 1952, 8.

61República Argentina, Berufsertüchtigung des Arbeiters, 6.

62Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “Entrega de diplomas a los primeros egresados del ciclo técnico,” 7.

63See speech by Perón in República Argentina, Berufsertüchtigung des Arbeiters, 21.

64Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, “La V exposición anual de nuestras escuelas-fábricas señala el alto grado de evolución alcanzado por los futuros obreros capacitados,” Aprendizaje, no. 1, April 1952, 26.

65See Américo Ghioldi, Oportunidad de formación profesional para los jóvenes: Normas de aprendizaje técnico (Buenos Aires, 1942).

66Adriana Puiggrós, “La educación argentina desde la reforma Saavedra Lamas hasta el fin de la década infame: Hipótesis para la discusión,” in Escuela, democracia y orden (1916-1943), ed. Adriana Puiggrós (Buenos Aires: Galerna, 1992), 65–67.

67In 1951, the Commission was transferred to the Ministry of Education.

68This vocational system has been examined by different authors from different perspectives. See Daniel Weinberg, La enseñanza técnica industrial en la Argentina, 1936-1965 (Buenos Aires: Instituto Torcuato Di Tella, 1967); Wiñar, Poder político y educación; Balduzzi, “Peronismo, saber y poder;” Inés Dussel and Pablo Pineau, “De cuando la clase obrera entró al paraíso: La educación técnica estatal en el primer peronismo,” in Discursos pedagógicos e imaginario social en el peronismo (1945-1955), ed. Adriana Puiggrós (Buenos Aires: Galerna, 1995), 107–173; Héctor R. Cucuzza, Estudios de historia de la educación durante el primer peronismo (1943-1955) (Buenos Aires: Los Libros del Riel, 1997); Pineau, “Peronism, Secondary Schooling and Work (Argentina, 1944-1955).”

69Secretaría de Trabajo y Previsión, Memoria Año 1947, 1948, 589–593.

70See Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, Planes de estudio y programas del Ciclo Técnico, 1950.

71República Argentina, Boletín Oficial, August 31, 1948.

72Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, Universidad Obrera Nacional. Reglamento de Organización y Funcionamiento, 1953, 45–46.

73Comisión Nacional de Aprendizaje y Orientación Profesional, Universidad Obrera Nacional, 48–49.

74The large majority of the attendants were male. The reason for the low female participation was presumably that, apart from the fact that most of the specialities were traditionally male domain, as stated above, the Peronist government generally discouraged women to leave home for work (exceptions were teachers and nurses, the latter labelled by Marcela Gené as the “female equivalent” of the industrial worker (Gené, Un mundo feliz, 134)). In fact, the Peronist government rather promoted the courses of professional schools for women (escuelas de capacitación profesional para mujeres) that concentrated on occupations practicable at home, like different fields of clothing manufacturing, sewing, weaving, cooking and decorative arts. Unlike the rest of the Peronist vocational education, these courses were short, informal and did not offer qualifying certificates. See María de los A. Álvarez, “La formación femenina en las Escuelas Profesionales: preparación educativa e inserción laboral en el período peronista” (paper presented at VI Encuentro de cátedras Ciencias Sociales y Humanísticas para Ciencias Económicas, Universidad Nacional de Salta, June 10–11, 1999).

75See Wiñar, Poder político y educación, 26 and Weinberg, La enseñanza técnica industrial en la Argentina.

76Dussel and Pineau, “De cuando la clase obrera entró al paraíso,” 156.

77See Robert A. Potash, The Army and Politics in Argentina, 1945-1962: Perón to Frondizi (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1980); Seoane, Argentina, 85.

78República Argentina, Boletín Oficial, March 9, 1956.

79Roberto H. Albergucci, Educación y Estado: Organización del Sistema Educativo (Buenos Aires: EditorialDocencia, 1996), 576–577. For a distinction between vocational and polytechnic education see footnote 2.

80David L. Wiñar, “Educación técnica y estructura social en América Latina” (UNESCO-CEPAL-PNUD 1981), 3.

81Schriewer, “Alternativen in Europa,” 254.

82Oscar Nieva and Roberto Serrao, “Las actividades educativas del sindicalismo argentino,” in Boletín Cinterfor 135 (April-June 1996): 70.

83Gallart, “La racionalidad educativa,” 33.

84Nieva and Serrao, “Las actividades educativas del sindicalismo argentino,” 66; Albergucci, Educación y Estado, 578.

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