The challenge of returning home: the role of school and teachers in the well-being of Finnish war children, “Finnebørn”, during and after World War II

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this article is to clarify what kind of role schools and teachers played in the well-being of Finnish war children during and after the Second World War. The study focuses on the children who were evacuated to Denmark, also known as Finnebørn, and their experiences and memories as war children in Denmark and returning evacuees back home in Finland. All together, 11 former Finnebørn were interviewed for the research. The interview data was supported by other primary sources such as published and unpublished written material and newspaper articles. This article explores the roles schools and teachers played in the lives of the evacuee children; what kind of influence an individual teacher had on Finnebørn’s resilience processes; and finally, how schooling effected children’s well-being. According to our data, going to school played an important role in Finnebørn’s lives. In Denmark, the children’s integration to their new home country was facilitated by supportive and understanding teachers. Escaping the wars, and learning a new language did, however, affect the children’s return to Finland. Having lost their first language, the re-integration into the Finnish society could prove a challenge, to which the Finnish schools and teachers were not prepared for.

KEYWORDS:

• War children
• children transports
• resilience
• schooling
• teachers
• Second World War

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes

¹ Olli Vehviläinen, Finland in the Second World War: Between Germany and Russia, trans. Gerard McAlester (New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2002).

² Aura Korppi-Tommola, “War and children in Finland during the Second World War,” Paedagogica Historica 44, no. 4 (2008): 445–55.

³ Johanna Sköld and Ingrid Söderlind, “Finska barn i svenska hem: Om mobiliseringen av familjer att ta emot främmande barn under andra världskriget,” Scandia 82, no. 1 (2016): 35; Pertti Kavén, Humanitaarisuuden varjossa. Poliittiset tekijät lastensiirroissa Ruotsiin sotiemme aikana ja niiden jälkeen (Helsinki: Oy Nord Print Ab, 2010); Lillemor Lagnebro, Finska Krigsbarn (Umeå: Umeå universitet, 1994).

⁴ Christian Ydsen, “Educational testing as an accountability measure: drawing on twentieth-century Danish history of education experiences,” Paedagogica Historica 49, no. 5 (2013): 716–33.

⁵ Heikki Salminen, Lappu kaulassa yli Pohjanlahden. Suomalaisten sotalasten historia (Turku: Siirtolaisuusinstituutti, 2007): 221–2.

⁶ Monika Janfelt, Stormakter i människokärlek: Svensk och dansk krigsbarnshjälp 1917–1924 (Åbo: Åbo Akademi, 1998): 36–57; Peter Gatrell, “Refugees and Forced Migrants during the First World War,” Immigrants & Minorities 26 (2008): 1–2, 91, 104; Friederike Kind-Kovács, “The ‘Other’ Child Transports: World War I and the Temporary Displacement of Needy Children from Central Europe,” Revue d’histoire de l’enfance 15 (2013).

⁷ Julie Summers, When the Children Came Home: Stories of Wartime Evacuees (Sydney: Simon & Schuster, 2011), Introduction; Claire Halstead, “‘Dear Mummy and Daddy’: Reading Wartime Letters from British Children Evacuated to Canada During the Second World War,” in Children, Childhood and Youth in the British World, ed. Simon Sleigh and Shirleene Robinson (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016).

⁸ Michael Richards, “Ideology and the Psychology of War Children in Franco’s Spain, 1936–1945,” in Children of World War II: The Hidden Enemy Legacy, ed. Kjersti Ericsson and Eva Simonsen (Oxford: Berg, 2005), 115–37; Verónica Sierra Blas, “Educating the Communists of the Future: Notes on the Educational Life of the Spanish Children Evacuated to the USSR During the Spanish Civil War,” Paedagogica Historica 51, no. 4 (2015): 496–519; Célia Keren, “Spanish Refugee Children in France, 1939: An Insight into Their Experiences, Opinions and Culture,” Bulletin of Spanish Studies: Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal and Latin America 89, no. 7-8 (2012): 279–93; Loring M. Danforth and Riki van Boeschoten, Children of the Greek Civil War: Refugees and the Politics of Memory (Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 2012); Joy Damousi, “The Greek Civil War and Child Migration to Australia: Aileen Fitzpatrick and the Australian Council of International Social Service,” Social History 37, no. 3 (2012): 297–313; Vera K. Fast, Children’s Exodus: A History of the Kinder Transport (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011; Ingrid Lomfors, Förlorad barndom återvunnet liv: De judiska flyktingbarnen från Nazityskland (Göteborg: Göteborgs universitet, 1996).

⁹ Ann Nehlin, “Building Bridges of Trust: Child Transports from Finland to Sweden during the Second World War,” War & Society 36, no. 2 (2017): 153; Sköld and Söderlind, “Finska barn i svenska hem”.

¹⁰ Lagnebro, Finska krigsbarn; Merja Paksuniemi, “Finnish Refugee Children’s Experiences of Swedish Refugee Camps during the Second World War,” Migration Letters 12, no. 1 (2015): 28–37; Karin Zetterqvist Nelson, “War Children, Evacuations, and State Politics in Europe During WWII: A Local Case of Sick Finnish War Children in Sweden,” in Conflict, Violence and Peace: Geographies of Children and Young People, ed. C. Harker et al. (Singapore: Springer, 2015): 1–21.

¹¹ See e.g. Hanna Alastalo, Early Life Stress and Later Health: Cardiovascular Disease and General Health among Former War Evacuees (Helsinki: National Institute for Health and Welfare, University of Helsinki, 2013).

¹² See e.g. Marianne Clément Larsen and Jesper Boysen, Finnebørn – et stykke Danmarkshistorie (Copenhagen: Forening Norden, 1999).

¹³ Torsten Santavirta et al., “Long Term Mental Health Outcomes of Finnish Children Evacuated to Swedish Families during the Second World War and their Non-evacuated Siblings: Cohort Study,” BMJ, 350:g7753 (2015). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7753.

¹⁴ Claire Halstead, “‘Dangers Behind, Pleasures Ahead’: British-Canadian Identity and the Evacuation of British Children to Canada during the Second World War,” British Journal of Canadian Studies 27 (2014): 168–9.

¹⁵ Fast, Children’s Exodus, 53–6.

¹⁶ Lagnebro, Finska krigsbarn, 100.

¹⁷ See.g. Richard Hamilton, “Schools, Teachers and Education of Refugee Children,” Educational Intervention for Refugee Children: Theoretical Perspectives and Implementing Best Practice, ed. Richard Hamilton and Dennis Moore (London & New York: Routledge Falmer, 2004): 83–96; Cécile Rousseau et al., “Evaluation of a Classroom Program of Creative Expression Workshops for Refugee and Immigrant Children,” The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46, no. 2 (2005):180–5.

¹⁸ Ann S. Masten, “Resilience in Developing Systems: Progress and Promise as the Fourth Wave Rises,” Development and Psychopathology 19, no. 3 (2007): 921–30; Rosmarie Welter-Enderlin and Bruno Hildenbrand, edS, Resilienz – Gedeihen trozt widriger Umstände (Netherlands: GmbH Heidelberg, 2006); Steven Southwick et al., (2014). “Resilience Definitions, Theory, and Challenges: Interdisciplinary Perspectives,” European Journal of Psychotraumatology 5, no. 1 (2014): 1–15. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338?needAccess=true.

¹⁹ Michael Ungar and Linda Liebenberg, “Assessing Resilience across Cultures using Mixed Methods: Construction of the Child and Youth Resilience Measure,” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 5, no. 2 (2011): 126–49; Niko Pyrhönen, Johanna Leinonen, and Tuomas Martikainen, Nordic Migration and Integration Research: Overview and Future Prospects (NordForsk Policy Paper 3/2017), http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1085791/FULLTEXT01.pdf .

²⁰ Ann S. Masten, “Ordinary Magic: Lessons from Research on Resilience in Human Development,” Education Canada 49, no. 3 (2009): 28–32; Ann S. Masten, “Global Perspectives on Resilience in Children and Youth,” Child Development 85, no. 1 (2014): 6–20, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.12205/full; Dante Cicchetti, “Annual Research Review: Resilient Functioning in Maltreated Children – Past, Present, and Future Perspectives,” The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 54, no. 4 (2013): 402–22; Gary W. Evans, Dongping Li, and Sara Sepanski Whipple, “Cumulative Risk and Child Development,” Psychological Bulletin 139, no. 6 (2013): 1342–96, https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/02ff/71c094cff93d06ee56506b7ebc7d9f702b9b.pdf.

²¹ See e.g. Cristina Yanes-Cabrera, Juri Meda, and Antonio Viñao, eds., School Memories: New Trends in the History of Education (Cham: Springer, 2016); Lynn Abrahams, “Memory as Both Source and Subject of Study: The Transformations of Oral History,” in Writing the History of Memory, ed. Stefan Berger and Bill Niven (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2014).

²² Alessandro Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,” in The Oral History Reader, ed. Robert Perks and Alistair Thomson (London & New York: Routledge, 2015), 63–74.

²³ Ibid., 68.

²⁴ e.g. Santavirta et al., “Long term mental health”, 3–5.

²⁵ Matthew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, and Johnny Saldana, Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook (Beverly Hills CA: Sage, 2014).

²⁶ Joyce A. Strand and Thomas D. Peacock, “Nurturing Resilience and School Success in American Indian and Alaska Native Students,” ERIC Digest (2002): 1–9.

²⁷ Salminen, Lappu kaulassa yli Pohjanlahden.

²⁸ Ibid., 220.

²⁹ Interview with I-1, Autumn 2014.

³⁰ Interview with I-11, Summer 2016.

³¹ Interview with I-2, Autumn 2014.

³² Roos, Anita: “Som social-kurator för finske barn i Sönderjylland sommaren 1942,” Särtryck ur tidskriften Norden 4 (1942): 6.

³³ Johanna Värjä, “Yhteinen menneisyys lähentää sotalapsia,” Kouvolan sanomat, 17 August 1995: 8.

³⁴ Interviews with I-8, Spring 2016; I-9, Autumn 2016.

³⁵ Interview with I-3, Spring 2015.

³⁶ Interview with I-2, Autumn 2014.

³⁷ Interviews with I-1, Autumn 2014; I-2, Autumn 2014; I-6, Autumn 2015; I-9, Autumn 2016.

³⁸ Interview with I-3, Spring 2015.

³⁹ e.g. Colin Baker, Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (USA: Multilingual Matters, 2006); Shannon M. Suldo and Gary Yu Hin Lam, “Cross-Cultural and International Considerations,” in Promoting Student Happiness. Positive Psychology Interventions in Schools, ed. Shannon M. Suldo (New York: The Guilford Press, 2016): 138–40.

⁴⁰ Jorma Pollari and Marja-Leena Koppinen, Maahanmuuttajan kohtaaminen ja opettaminen (Juva: Bookwell Oy, 2011): 72–3.

⁴¹ Interview with I-4, Autumn 2015.

⁴² Interview with I-5, Autumn 2015.

⁴³ Lisa Doyle and Megan McCorriston, Beyond the School Gates: Supporting Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Secondary School. (Refugee Council: KPMG Foundation, 2008), https://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/assets/0001/7042/Inclusive_Schools_project_research_report_May_08.

⁴⁴ Interviews with I-2, Autumn 2014; I-3, Spring 2015; I-4, Autumn 2015; I-6, Autumn 2015; I-7, Spring 2016; I-8, Autumn 2016; I-9, Autumn 2016.

⁴⁵ Interviews with I-1, Autumn 2014; I-2, Autumn 2014; I-3, Spring 2015; I-4, Autumn 2015; I-6, Autumn 2015; I-8, Autumn 2016; I-9, Autumn 2016.

⁴⁶ Salminen, Lappu kaulassa yli Pohjanlahden.

⁴⁷ Interview with I-11, Summer 2016.

⁴⁸ Salminen, Lappu kaulassa yli Pohjanlahden, 222.

⁴⁹ Interview with I-2, Autumn 2014.

⁵⁰ H. Niemi, The Societal Factors Contributing to Education and Schooling in Finland, in Miracle of Education: The Principles and Practices of Teaching and Learning in Finnish Schools, ed. H. Niemi, A. Toom, and A. Kallioniemi (Rotterdam: Sense, 2012).

⁵¹ Merja Paksuniemi, Tornion alakansakoulunopettajaseminaarin opettajakuva lukuvuosina 1921–1945 rajautuen oppilasvalintoihin, oppikirjoihin ja oheistoimintaan. (Rovaniemi: University of Lapland, 2009): 173–5.

⁵² Interview with I-4, Autumn 2015.

⁵³ Interview with I-4, Autumn 2015.

⁵⁴ Interview with I-10, Summer 2016.

⁵⁵ Interview with I-8, Autumn 2016.

⁵⁶ Interview with I-9, Autumn 2016.

⁵⁷ Interview with I-11, Summer 2016.

⁵⁸ Interview with I-5, Autumn 2015.

⁵⁹ Interviews with I-1, Autumn 2014; I-2, Autumn 2014; I-3, Spring 2015; I-4, Autumn 2015; I-6, Autumn 2015; I-8, Autumn 2016; I-9, Autumn 2016; I-11, Summer 2016.

⁶⁰ e.g. Oma Terttu Laue, “Min skoletid i Finland” (unpublished); Marita Bagge, “Danmark gav 3874 finnebørn trygghet under kriget” Vasabladet, 1 February 2003; Ulla Bech, “Finland-Danmark – og retur. En beretning om to finnedrenges ophold i Danmark under krigen i årene 1942–43”, Årsskriftet (Gundsø: Egnshistorisk Forening i Gundsø, 2011).

⁶¹ e.g. Salminen, Lappu kaulassa yli Pohjanlahden.

⁶² Irene Virtala, ”Suomalaiset sotalapset kaunokirjallisuudessa,” Siirtolaisuus-Migration 32, no. 3 (2005): 19–27.

⁶³ See also Hamilton, “Schools, Teachers and Education”; Masten, “Global Perspectives on Resilience”.

⁶⁴ See Richard Hamilton and Dennis Moore, eds. Educational interventions for refugee children: Theoretical perspectives and implementing best practice. (London & New York: Routledge Falmer, 2004); Doyle and McCorriston, Beyond the School Gates.

⁶⁵ Finlandshjælpens Parlør: En kort Vejledning til Brug for danske Værter, som skal modtage et finsk Barn.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Pia Pannula Toft

Pia Pannula Toft is independent researcher based in Denmark with expertise and research interest in resilience processes, migration, human rights, and the evacuation of the Finnish children during WWII.

Merja Paksuniemi

Merja Paksuniemi works as a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Education, University of Lapland, Finland. Her expertise lies in the fields of history of education and history of childhood. Her publications include forthcoming edited books Cross-national Perspectives on Education in the European Arctic  - Sámi and Nomad Schools in Context (Palgrave Macmillian) and Introduction to the Finnish Educational System (Brill).

Johannes Westberg

Johannes Westberg is professor of Education at Örebro University, Sweden, and coordinator of the Nordic Network on History of Education. His research interest encompasses various aspects of the social, economic, and material history of education. His publications include Funding the Rise of Mass Schooling (Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), and the forthcoming edited book (with Lukas Boser and Ingrid Brühwiler), School Acts and the Rise of Mass Schooling: Education Policy in the Long Nineteenth Century (Palgrave Macmillan).