‘I Myself Want to Build’: Women, Architectural Education and the Integration of Germany’s Technical Colleges

Abstract

This article reconstructs women’s entry into the architecture classrooms of Germany’s Technische Hochschulen, which were, and remain, the nation’s primary institutions for training architects. Created in the 1860s and ’70s to supply an industrializing nation with well‐educated engineers and building officials, these elite colleges resisted opening their doors to a ‘non‐productive’ population. The story of their integration begins at the end of the nineteenth century, when women first demanded permission to attend lectures. The schools’ protectionist response to these efforts sought to limit women’s access to general studies, keeping disciplinary programs, including architecture, a male domain. The foothold women gained in the general studies departments was, nonetheless, an important first step, and the means by which this was accomplished as well as their reception is considered. The author then turns to the integration of architecture departments proper, from the admittance of female auditors at the turn of the twentieth century to the struggles for full matriculation and the awarding of the first architecture diplomas to women. Into a larger institutional framework, the essay interweaves individual stories that serve to put faces on government policy and to emphasize the human effort behind the ‘firsts’ of history. In addition, a statistical analysis of forty women who completed an architectural education at the THs during the Imperial period enables construction of a broad profile of the first generation of women architects. This collective profile, together with the individual biographies, provides a more textured account of who these women were and how they managed to secure an education for a profession then considered the rightful and exclusive preserve of men.

Notes

¹ “Die Frau und die Technik.” Frauenberuf: Blätter für die Fragen der weiblichen Erziehung, Ausbildung, Berufs‐ und Hilfsthätigkeit 19 (1916): 168.

² For a discussion of these educational options, including private architecture schools for women, see Stratigakos, Despina Maria. Skirts and Scaffolding: Women Architects, Gender, and Design in Wilhelmine Germany. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1999: 140–48.

³ Manegold, Karl‐Heinz. “Technology Academised: Education and Training of the Engineer in the Nineteenth Century.” In The Dynamics of Science and Technology: Social Values, Technical Norms, and Scientific Criteria in the Development of Knowledge, edited by Wolfgang Krohn, Edwin T. Layton, Jr., and Peter Weingart. Boston: Reidel, 1978: 137–58; Pfammatter, Ulrich. The Making of the Modern Architect and Engineer. Trans. Madeline Ferretti‐Theilig. Basel: Birkhäuser, 2000: 222–38.

⁴ Clark, Vincent. “A Struggle for Existence: The Professionalization of German Architects.” In German Professions, 1800–1950, edited by Geoffrey Cocks and Konrad H. Jarausch. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990: 146.

⁵ Manegold. “Technology Academised,” 150.

⁶ Gispen, Kees. “Engineers in Wilhelmian Germany: Professionalization, Deprofessionalization, and the Development of Nonacademic Technical Education.” In Cocks and Jarausch, German Professions, 106. Clark, “A Struggle for Existence,” 146.

⁷ McClelland, Charles E. State, Society, and University in Germany 1700–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980: 305–07; Clark, “A Struggle for Existence,” 150.

⁸ Clark. “A Struggle for Existence,” 146–48.

⁹ Duden, Barbara, and Hans Ebert. “Die Anfänge des Frauenstudiums an der Technischen Hochschule Berlin.” In Wissenschaft und Gesellschaft. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Technischen Universität Berlin, 1879–1979, edited by Reinhard Rürup. Berlin: Springer, 1979: 404.

¹⁰ Eckhoff, Regina. “Das Frauenstudium an der TH Braunschweig vom Kaiserreich bis 1933.” Master’s thesis, Technical University Braunschweig, 1993: 29.

¹¹ The precise meaning of the terms Hörer and Hospitant varied from school to school and over the years. For the sake of clarity, I retain the above usage throughout the essay. For a more comprehensive explanation of auditor status at the THs, see Stratigakos, Skirts and Scaffolding, 162–63.

¹² Art history lectures, which seem to have been among the most frequented by female auditors, were sometimes administratively within architecture departments.

¹³ Eckhoff, “Frauenstudium,” 30, 36.

¹⁴ Bernholz, Dorothea. “Probleme des Frauenstudiums an den technischen Hochschulen der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik.” Ph. D. diss., Technical University Dresden, 1968: 12.

¹⁵ Eckhoff, “Frauenstudium,” 27; Petition to the rector and senate of the Hannover TH, 16 October 1899, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, Niedersächsiches Hauptstaatsarchiv Hannover (hereafter cited as NHH). According to the Prussian education minister, this was the first time the issue of women’s admittance had arisen for a Prussian TH. Prussian education minister to the Danzig rector, 19 August 1904, HA‐I 76Vb, Sekt 10, Tit. 7, no. 3, Geheimes Staatsarchiv Berlin (hereafter cited as GSA).

¹⁶ Hannover rector to the Prussian education minister, 6 November 1900, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

¹⁷ Hannover rector to the Prussian education minister, 31 October 1899, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

¹⁸ Ministerial decree (UI No. 23579) from the Prussian education minister to the Hannover rector, 2 December 1899, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

¹⁹ Frau Rechtsanwalt und Notar Dr. Linckelmann et al. to the Prussian education minister, 17 October 1900, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

²⁰ Hannover rector to the Prussian education minister, 6 November 1900, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

²¹ Ministerial decree (UI No. 24121) from the Prussian education minister to the Hannover rector, 24 November 1900, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63.

²² “Studienordnung der Königl. Sächs. Technischen Hochschule (Dresden, 1907)” in the papers of the Min. für Volksbildung, No. 15135, pp. 10–11, Sächsiches Hauptstaatsarchiv Dresden.

²³ A 1903 request by Elsa Bentley, an art history auditor, to audit courses in the architecture department was reviewed by the department, the school senate, the rector and the Prussian minister of education. Hannover rector to the chairman of the architecture department, 6 July 1903, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

²⁴ Memorandum with signatures, 2 October 1905, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

²⁵ Albisetti, James C. Schooling German Girls and Women. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988: 126–28.

²⁶ Mazón, Patricia. Academic Citizenship and the Admission of Women to German Universities, 1865–1914. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1995: 199–200.

²⁷ Ober‐Präsident der Provinz Westpreußen to the Danzig Rektor, 30 July 1904, HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 10, Tit. 7, Nr. 3, GSA.

²⁸ Decree (UI No. 23579) to Hannover rector from the Prussian education minister, 2 December 1899, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

²⁹ Eckhoff, “Frauenstudium,” 31.

³⁰ Ober‐Präsident der Provinz Hannover (writing on behalf of the Prussian education minister) to Lisbeth Schetelig, 1 August 1900, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

³¹ Hannover rector to Professors Stier and Mohrmann, 30 November 1904, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

³² Eckhoff, “Frauenstudium,” 32.

³³ Berlin TH Rector to the Prussian minister of education, 10 January 1901, HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 12, Tit. 7, no. 2, GSA. See also Eckhoff, “Frauenstudium”, 33–34.

³⁴ Aachen TH rector to the Prussian education minister, 28 April 1899, HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 6, Tit. VII, no. 3, vol. 1 (1899–1925): 1 (and verso), GSA.

³⁵ Prussian education minister to the Aachen rector, 5 August 1899, HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 6, Tit. VII, no. 3, vol. 1 (1899–1925): 4–5 (and verso), GSA.

³⁶ Internal memo written on the letter from the Aachen rector to the Prussian education minister, 27 June 1899, HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 6, Tit. VII, no. 3, vol. 1 (1899–1925): 3 (and verso), GSA.

³⁷ Prussian education minister to the Hannover rector, 13 December 1902, HA‐I, Rep. 76 Vb, Sekt. 12, Tit. 7, no. 2, GSA. Hannover rector to the Prussian education minister, 22 December 1902, HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 12, Tit. 7, no. 2, GSA.

³⁸ Berlin TH rector to the Prussian education minister, 10 January 1901, HA‐I, 76Vb, Sekt. 4, Tit. 7, no. 6, vol. 1: 5–6, GSA.

³⁹ West Prussia’s premier to Danzig’s rector, 30 July 1904 (written on the rector’s letter from 29 July 1904), HA‐I, Rep. 7Vb, Sekt. 10, Tit. 7, no. 3, GSA.

⁴⁰ Department chairman to Hannover’s rector, 19 October 1901, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

⁴¹ Ibid.

⁴² Hannover rector to the Prussian education minister, 20 October 1901, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

⁴³ Prussian education minister (decree UI Nr. 24288) to Hannover’s rector, 29 October 1901, Hann 146A 62/81 25 I/63, NHH.

⁴⁴ Daussig, Fritz. “Ein weiblicher Architekt.” Daheim 45, no. 48 (1909): 12.

⁴⁵ Typed excerpt from a letter written by Johanna West to Frau von Saldern, 30 October 1972, in the Winkelmann papers, Berlinische Galerie, Berlin, Germany.

⁴⁶ Article on the celebrations in Aken of the 50th anniversary of the start of Christian Voigt’s apprenticeship in Cönnern, in the Akener Wochenblatt 29 (10 April 1883). I am grateful to Edith Förtsch for bringing this article to my attention.

⁴⁷ Almut Huber, letter to author, 17 December 1997. See also Stratigakos, Despina. “Eine Akener Architektin: Emilie Winkelmann.” Mitteilungsblatt für den Landkreis Köthen/Anhalt 7, no. 7 (1998): 2.

⁴⁸ “Die Frau in der Architektur.” Die Frau in Haus und Beruf. Berlin: Mosse, 1912: 152–53.

⁴⁹ Recounted by Ernst Winkelmann (nephew of Emilie Winkelmann) to his daughter Edith Förtsch.

⁵⁰ She is said to have chosen Hannover because of ties to an architect there who had been friends with her grandfather. Almut Huber, letter to author, 17 December 1997.

⁵¹ “Hörer und Hörerinnen Winter 1901/02,” Hann 146A, Acc 7/67, Nr. 66, NHH. This file also includes the summer semester 1902.

⁵² Winkelmann was enrolled in the architecture department from the winter semester of 1902–1903 to the winter semester of 1906–1907, with the exception of the summer semester 1906, for which there are no records. The courses she took are listed in Herbert Mundhenke, ed. Die Matrikel der höheren Gewerbeschule der Polytechnischen Schule und der technische Hochschule zu Hannover. Vol 1: 1831–1881. Hildesheim: August Lax, 1988: 658 (matriculation number 15344).

⁵³ Letter from Johanna West to Frau von Saldern (see note 45).

⁵⁴ Prussian education minister to the Danzig rector, 19 August 1904, HA‐I 76Vb, Sekt 10, Tit. 7, no. 3, GSA.

⁵⁵ According to Prussian regulations for the THs, it was not necessary in 1901 or 1902 for someone seeking Hospitant status to obtain ministerial permission. Rather, it was the rector who made the decision. (See the regulations outlined in the Programm der Königlichen Technischen Hochschule zu Hannover für das Studien‐Jahr 1901–02. Hannover: Pokrantz, 1901: 11; and Programm der Königlichen Technischen Hochschule zu Hannover für das Studien‐Jahr 1902–03. Hannover: Pokrantz, 1902: 11). This rule, however, was clearly intended for men, not women. Thus Karen Platou in 1901 had to proceed through ministerial channels before receiving her Hospitant status, and this for only one semester. It is thus highly unlikely that one year later this would have been deemed unnecessary for Emilie Winkelmann, who sought a longer‐term arrangement.

⁵⁶ Hessian minister of the interior to the Prussian education minister, 17 December 1904, HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 1, GSA.

⁵⁷ Fuchs, Margot. Wie die Väter so die Töchter: Frauenstudium an der technischen Hochschule München von 1899–1970. Munich: Faktum, 1994: 1.

⁵⁸ Agnes Mackensen is listed in the Personalstand der Königlich Bayerischen Technischen Hochschule zu München im Winter‐Semester 1905–06 (Munich, 1905). She was not, however, the first woman to pursue architectural studies at the Munich TH. Beginning winter semester 1904–1905, the Russian Helene Gichareff was enrolled as an auditor in the department, where she remained (in the same status) for six semesters, until summer semester 1907. Russian female auditors constituted about half of the female presence (four out of the ten women) in the architecture department in Munich from the winter semester 1904–1905 to the winter semester 1910–1911.

⁵⁹ Robert Fricke to the Braunschweig state ministry, 2 April 1905, 12 Neu Kultus, 16, Nr. 180, Niedersächsiches Staatsarchiv Wolfenbüttel.

⁶⁰ Ibid.

⁶¹ Eckhoff, “Frauenstudium,” 41, note 147.

⁶² The minister used different terms, but for consistency I am using the pre‐1905 categories. Prussian education minister to the Hessian ministry of the interior, 10 December 1905, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 2–3, GSA.

⁶³ Minutes of the meeting of Prussian TH rectors held on 12 May 1905, HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 30, GSA. Altoff was director of university affairs in the Prussian education ministry.

⁶⁴ Bernholz, “Probleme des Frauenstudiums,” 14–16.

⁶⁵ Rector and senate of the Dresden TH to the Saxon education ministry, 29 June 1907, Min. für Volksbildung, Nr. 15768: 122, Sächsiches Landeshauptarchiv Dresden.

⁶⁶ “Bekanntmachung wegen Änderung des Statutes der Technischen Hochschule vom 23. Oktober 1907,” Min. für Volksbildung, Nr. 15135: 141, Sächsiches Landeshauptarchiv Dresden.

⁶⁷ Albisetti, James. “The Fight for Female Physicians in Imperial Germany.” Central European History 15 (1982): 112, 120.

⁶⁸ “Aufnahmebedingungen,” Verzeichnis der Vorlesungen und Übungen, WS 1921/21, Dresden Technical University Archive.

⁶⁹ “Erlass betreffend die Zulassung der Frauen zum Studium an den Technischen Hochschulen (UTH. Nr. 21175),” 14 April 1909; and “Zusammenstellung der Aufnahme‐ und Zulassungsbestimmungen usw. für Frauen an den deutschen Technischen Hochschule (Juli 1909),” both in 12 Neu Kultus, 16, no. 180, Niedersächsiches Staatsarchiv Wolfenbüttel. In Darmstadt foreign women with a Reifezeugnis from a German school or from a foreign school with instruction in German needed the permission of the college’s smaller senate; all others needed ministerial permission (in “Zusammenstellung der Aufnahme‐ und Zulassungsbestimmungen,” above). Darmstadt’s regulations suggest that the aim was to discourage non‐German speaking nationals, particularly women from Eastern European countries.

⁷⁰ Letter to the TH rectors, 14 April 1909, HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 99–100, GSA.

⁷¹ In these documents, Hospitantinnen (as I use the term) are called Hörerinnen or Zuhörerinnen. “Erlaß betreffend die Zulassung der Frauen zum Studium an den Technischen Hochschulen (UTH. Nr. 21175),” HA‐I, Rep. 76 Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 98, GSA; and, “Zusammenstellung der Aufnahme‐ und Zulassungsbestimmungen usw. für Frauen an den deutschen Technischen Hochschule (Juli 1909),” 12 Neu Kultus, 16, no. 180, UTH 21175, Niedersächsiches Staatsarchiv Wolfenbüttel. In Prussia, this restriction would only be lifted in June 1930. Prussian education minister to the Berlin TH rector, 6 May 1930, and his decree from 30 June 1930 (UI 31064), both 76Vb, Sekt 2, Tit. 7, no. 2, vol. 1: 8, 10, GSA.

⁷² On the new regulations, see a draft for UTH 2838[?] (dated April 1913) in HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 122–23 (and verso), GSA. (In this document, the women whom I refer to as Hörerinnen are called Gastteilnehmerinnen.) It is noteworthy that already in 1905, when the Prussian authorities were contemplating matriculation for women, they intended to link this with a restriction on the number of female auditors. Minutes of a conference (of university and TH rectors?) in Nürnberg, 13 and 14 October 1905, HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 12 (and verso), GSA.

⁷³ Minutes of a conference in Nürnberg, 13 and 14 October 1905, HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 12 (verso), GSA; and, “Zusammenstellung der Aufnahme‐ und Zulassungsbestimmungen usw. für Frauen an den deutschen Technischen Hochschule (Juli 1909),” 12 Neu Kultus, 16, no. 180, UTH 21175, Niedersächsiches Staatsarchiv Wolfenbüttel.

⁷⁴ On secondary school reform after 1908, see Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, 274ff.

⁷⁵ Bäumer, Gertrud. “Entwicklung und Stand des Frauenstudiums und der höheren Frauenberufe.” Die Frau 19, nos 8–9 (1912): 14, 16. In that same year, about another 137 women passed the Abitur in Germany by preparing privately or attending a boys’ school.

⁷⁶ Sources for above biographical information: Notes made by Elisabeth von Knobelsdorff, probably for an article written on the occasion of her eightieth birthday in 1957 (I am grateful to Dr Hilmar von Tippelskirch for sending me a transcript); 1912 curriculum vitae in her membership file for the Architekten‐Verein zu Berlin (today the Architekten‐ und Ingenieur Verein zu Berlin; membership number 6314); and from her student file (“Anmeldebogen für das Sommer‐Semester 1909”) at the Munich Technical University.

⁷⁷ Information from the “Anmeldebogen für das Sommer‐Semester 1909” and a newspaper clipping in her student file at the Munich Technical University: “Der erste weibliche Diplom‐Ingenieur.” Geraer‐Zeitung (7 February 1912). The dates of her attendance at the University of Berlin and the Berlin TH are given in Dr Naumann’s report on her visit to the education ministry, 6 November 1908, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 71, GSA.

⁷⁸ See UTH 22840, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 72, GSA. (In this document, Elisabeth von Knobelsdorff is refered to as a Gastteilnehmerin.) Unfortunately, there are no records concerning the process by which she gained admission as an auditor to the architecture department. The file that might have contained these, on the admission of women to the Berlin TH, is missing the years between 1902 and 1907. HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 4, Tit. 7, no. 6, GSA.

⁷⁹ Goebel, Helmut. “‘Knobbi’ wollte selber bauen: Besuch bei Deutschlands erster Architektin: Elisabeth von Tippelskirch.” Hamburger Abendblatt, no. 208 (7/8 September 1957): 17.

⁸⁰ Dr Naumann’s report, 6 November 1908, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 71, GSA.

⁸¹ Education minister to the state ministry, May 1908, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 38–42, GSA.

⁸² Goebel, “Knobbi”, 1957.

⁸³ “Frauen an den Technischen Hochschulen.” Berliner Tageblatt (18 June 1908, evening). Clipping in HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 68, GSA.

⁸⁴ Petition to Kaiser Wilhelm II regarding women’s matriculation to the THs, 30 March 1909, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 91 (and verso), GSA.

⁸⁵ Stratigakos, Skirts and Scaffolding, 368–69.

⁸⁶ Goebel, “Knobbi”, 1957; and notes made by Elisabeth von Knobelsdorff, c. 1957.

⁸⁷ Knobelsdorff attended the Munich TH for the summer semester 1909 and winter semester 1909–1910.

⁸⁸ “Eine ehemalige Münchner Studentin.” Münchener Neuesten Nachrichten (10 February 1912).

⁸⁹ Education minister to the state ministry, May 1908 and 6 November 1908, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 38–42, 74–76, GSA.

⁹⁰ Letters from the justice (27 November 1908), finance (14 January 1909), business and trade (5 February 1909), war (12 February 1909), public works (26 February 1909), state (11 March 1909), and agriculture and forests (11 March 1909) ministries, HA‐II, Rep. 76 Vb. Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 78, 80, 82–83, 85, 87, 89, GSA.

⁹¹ I am deeply grateful to Werner Firgau, son of Thekla Firgau‐Schild, for providing me with a copy of these unpublished memoirs. For additional biographical profiles of the first female architectural students in Germany, see Stratigakos, Skirts and Scaffolding, 181–85.

⁹² Albisetti, Schooling German Girls, 209–11.

⁹³ Firgau‐Schild, Thekla, unpublished memoir: 15, 27–28.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 23, 25–27.

⁹⁵ For an in‐depth discussion of the gendered characteristics of the ideal architect, see Stratigakos, Despina. “Architects in Skirts: The Public Image of Women Architects in Wilhelmine Germany.” Journal of Architectural Education 55, no. 2 (2001): 90–100.

⁹⁶ Firgau‐Schild, unpublished memoir, 23–25.

⁹⁷ Ibid., 27–28.

⁹⁸ Ibid., 29–30.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 32.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 79.

¹⁰¹ The information presented in this section is an abbreviated version of a lengthier study, including appendices with the data collected, in Stratigakos, Skirts and Scaffolding, 192–214, 389–92. The numerous sources used to compose the survey are listed there.

¹⁰² This was the first time that women were included in the statistics on Prussian universities. Statistisches Landesamt. Preußische Statistik (Amtliches Quellenwerk). Vol. 236 of Statistik der Landesuniversitäten … für das Studienjahr Ostern 1911/12. Berlin: Verlag des Königlichen Statistischen Landesamts, 1913.

¹⁰³ In the winter semester 1911–1912. Ibid., Table 26, 194–95.

¹⁰⁴ Viefhaus, Marianne. “Frauen an der Technischen Hochschule Darmstadt.” In Frauen in der Wissenschaft: Dokumentation der Ringvorlesung vom Wintersemester 1985/86 an der Technischen Hochschule Darmstadt, edited by Brigitte Emig. Darmstadt: Technical University Darmstadt, 1988: 48.

¹⁰⁵ Austria’s THs opened matriculation to women in 1919. In the Prussian education ministry files, a Hungarian woman specifically requested permission to study engineering at the Berlin TH because she could not matriculate as a regular student at the Budapest TH. Letter from Lilly Szabo to the Prussian education minister, 19 June 1915, HA‐I, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 4, Tit. 7, no. 6, vol. 1: 52 (and verso), GSA.

¹⁰⁶ Mazón, Academic Citizenship, 186–88.

¹⁰⁷ Preußische Statistik, Table 28, pages 200–203 for women; Table 27, page 147 for men. Statistics for men and women are based on an average taken between the summer semester 1911 and the winter semester 1911–1912.

¹⁰⁸ Titze, Hartmut. Datenhandbuch zur deutschen Bildungsgeschichte. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1987: Table 117, p. 241, and Table 130, p. 267.

¹⁰⁹ On girls’ higher schools in Germany, see Albisetti, Schooling German Girls.

¹¹⁰ The average age at which German women who had attended a Studienanstalt started architectural studies was 19, compared with 23 for the German Abiturientinnen who had not.

¹¹¹ Matrikelbücher vols 6 and 7, Immatrikulationsamt, Technische Universtität Berlin. The presence of foreign Jewish women played a role in raising these numbers: ten of the thirty‐seven women in architectural studies were foreign nationals, and of these four, or 40%, were Jewish. But even excluding foreigners, German Jewish women still made up 30% of German female architectural students in the first ten years at the Berlin TH.

¹¹² Huerkamp, Claudia. Bildungsbürgerinnen: Frauen im Studium und in akademischen Berufen 1900–1945. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996: 24–28, 51.

¹¹³ Ibid., 24, 27.

¹¹⁴ Preussische Statistik, Table 26, 194–95.

¹¹⁵ Huerkamp, Bildungsbürgerinnen, 39–40.

¹¹⁶ Ibid., 42–43.

¹¹⁷ A verbal note was given from the Austrian embassy in Berlin to the German department of external affairs. This correspondence and the responses of the German schools have been preserved in the following archives: HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, No. 3: 134–47, GSA; and collection AVA in gre 2641 14A 1914–, no. 6629, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv, Vienna.

¹¹⁸ “Nachweisung über studierende Frauen” (report from the Berlin TH rector), 28 January 1918, HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 137–38, GSA.

¹¹⁹ “Übersicht” from Darmstadt, AVA in gre 2641 14A 1914–, no. 6629, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv.

¹²⁰ “Zusammenstellung über die Immatrikulation von Frauen an der K. Technischen Hochschule in München”, AVA in gre 2641 14A 1914–, no. 6629, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv.

¹²¹ Prussian education minister to the Prussian minister of external affairs, 16 February 1918, HA‐II, Rep. 76Vb, Sekt. 1, Tit. 7, no. 3: 147, GSA. This report omits Elisabeth von Knobelsdorff, who obtained her diploma in architecture in 1911. I have included her in the totals given here.

¹²² Reports dated between January and March 1918. AVA in gre 2641 14A 1914, no. 6629, Österreichisches Staatsarchiv.

¹²³ Maasberg, Ute, and Regina Prinz. Die Neuen kommen! Weibliche Avantgarde in der Architektur der zwanziger Jahre. Hamburg: Junius, 2004: 33; Bauer, Corinna Isabel. “Bauhaus‐ und Tessenow‐Schülerinnen: Genderaspekte im Spannungsverhältnis von Tradition und Moderne.” Dr. ‐Ing. Diss., Kassel University, 2003: 53.

¹²⁴ Lapeyre, Nathalie. Les professions face aux enjeux de la féminisation. Toulouse: Octarès, 2006: 90; Willis, Julie, and Bronwyn Hanna. Women Architects in Australia, 1900–1950. Red Hill, Australia: Royal Australian Institute of Architects, 2001: 28; Lang, Evelyne. “Les premières femmes architectes de Suisse.” Doctoral diss., École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1993: 187–89.

¹²⁵ Anthony, Kathryn H. Designing for Diversity: Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Architectural Profession. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001; Graft‐Johnson, Ann de, Sandra Manley, and Clara Greed. Why Do Women Leave Architecture? Bristol: University of the West of England; London: Royal Institute of British Architects, 2003.

¹²⁶ Lapeyre, Les professions, 91–92; Graft‐Johnson, Why Do Women Leave Architecture, 1; Toy, Maggie. The Architect: Women in Contemporary Architecture. New York: Watson‐Guptil, 2001: 9.