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Original Articles

Antisemitism among Dutch socialists in the 1880s and 1890s

 

ABSTRACT

Antisemitism in the Dutch labour movement has not been studied sufficiently. This is certainly true with regard to Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis and the early socialist movement of the nineteenth century. However, anti-Jewish propaganda needs to be taken into account in order to understand why the Jewish proletariat joined the socialist ranks at such a late stage, that is, only after the reformist wing split from Domela Nieuwenhuis's Social Democratic League (SDB) into the Social Democratic Labour Party (SDAP) in 1894. Stutje aims to address this lacuna, and demonstrates that Domela Nieuwenhuis had been using antisemitic stereotyping against the parliament-orientated reformists because the latter's main rival, P. J. Troelstra, was dependent on a modest group of Jewish diamond workers in Amsterdam. Once that conflict was over antisemitism faded into the background again.

Notes

1 See J. C. H. Blom, R. G. Fuks-Mansfeld and Ivo Schöffer (eds), Geschiedenis van de joden in Nederland (Amsterdam: Balans 1995), 466.

2 Selma Leydesdorff, Wij hebben als mens geleefd: Het joodse proletariaat van Amsterdam 1900–1940 (Amsterdam: Meulenhoff 1987); Evelien Gans, De kleine verschillen die het leven uitmaken: Een historische studie over joodse sociaaldemocraten en socialistisch-zionisten in Nederland (Amsterdam: Vassallucci 1999); Karin Hofmeester, Van Talmoed tot Statuut: Joodse arbeiders en arbeidersbewegingen in Amsterdam, Londen en Parijs, 1880–1914 (Amsterdam: Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis 1990); Margreet Schrevel, ‘“Als socialist, niet als Israëliet”: De SDAP en het “joodse vraagstuk”, 1894–1940’, De Gids, vol. 156, 1993, 501–10.

3 Jack Jacobs, On Socialists and ‘the Jewish Question’ after Marx (New York: New York University Press 1992), 3.

4 Jan Willem Stutje, Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis: Een romantische revolutionair (Antwerp: Houtekiet/ Ghent: Amsab/ Amsterdam: Atlas 2012); see also Rudolf de Jong, ‘Was Domela antisemiet? Biograaf Jan Willem Stutje slaat de plank mis’, De As, vol. 40, no. 180, 2012, 44–58.

5 Bert Altena, ‘Domela Nieuwenhuis was geen antisemiet’, Het Parool, 8 July 2012.

6 Rudolf Dekker, Meer verleden dan toekomst: Geschiedenis van verdwijnend Nederland (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker 2008).

7 Ibid., 275.

8 Rob Hartmans, Vijandige broeders? De Nederlandse sociaal-democratie en het nationaal-socialisme, 1922–1940 (Amsterdam: Ambo 2012), 158.

9 ‘Politieke brief over de nationale en joodse vraagstukken onder de huidige omstandigheden’, 27 February 1941, 11, quoted in Hansje Galesloot and Susan Legêne, Partij in het verzet: De CPN in de Tweede Wereldoorlog (Amsterdam: Pegasus 1986), 63. Translations into English, unless otherwise attributed, are by the author and translator.

10 B. A. Sijes, De Februari-staking, 25–26 februari 1941 (Amsterdam: H. J. W. Becht 1978), 185.

11 Ibid., 18.

12 Jan Meyers, Domela, een hemel op aarde: Leven en streven van Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis (Amsterdam: Uitgeverij De Arbeiderspers 1993); Bert Altena, ‘Kritik wegen der Praxis: F. Domela Nieuwenhuis und der Marxismus’, in Marcel van der Linden (ed.), Die Rezeption der Marxschen Theorie in den Niederlanden (Trier: Karl-Marx-Haus 1992), 47–83; Jos Perry, De voorman: Een biografie van Willem Hubert Vliegen 1862–1947 (Amsterdam: Uitgeverij De Arbeiderspers 1994); Homme Wedman, ‘Christiaan Cornelissen: Marxism and revolutionary syndicalism’, in Van der Linden (ed.), Die Rezeption der Marxschen Theorie in den Niederlanden, 84–105.

13 Bert Altena with Rudolf de Jong (eds), ‘En al beschouwen alle broeders mij als den verloren broeder’: De familiecorrespondentie van en over Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis 1846–1932 (Amsterdam: Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis 1997), 46.

14 Kees Bruin, Een Herenwereld ontleed: Over Amsterdamse oude en nieuwe elites in de tweede helft van de negentiende eeuw (Amsterdam: Sociologisch Instituut, Universiteit van Amsterdam 1980), 46; Jaap Meijer, Zij lieten hun sporen achter: Joodse bijdragen tot de Nederlandse beschaving (Utrecht: Oosthoek 1964), 149.

15 In England, for example, forty-three workers’ organizations argued in favour of limiting the admission of Jews expelled from Eastern Europe by pogroms; Labour leaders like Ben Tillett and Tom Mann endorsed those pleas. See W. H. Wilkens, The Alien Invasion (London: Methuen and Co. 1892), 35–53; and London Evening News, 27 May 1891 and 19 June 1891.

16 A. van Ros, De Jood: Een waarschuwend woord aan den Christen (Roermond: M. Waterreus Drukker en Uitgever 1891). See also Jan Ramakers, ‘“Godsmoordenaars en addergebroed”: Het antisemitisch vijandbeeld bij de Nederlandse katholieken in de negentiende eeuw’, in Hans Righart (ed.), De zachte kant van de politiek: Opstellen over politieke cultuur (The Hague: SDU 1990), 88–106.

17 De Talmoedjood, 3 April 1892.

18 Sam de Wolff, Voor het land van belofte: Een terugblik op mijn leven [1954] (Nijmegen: SUN 1987), 45–6.

19 Abraham Kuyper, ‘De Joden onder de Christen-natiën’, De Standaard, 8, 11, 12, 13 and 14 October 1875; Abraham Kuyper, Liberalisten en Joden (Amsterdam: Kruyt 1878); Ivo Schöffer, ‘Abraham Kuyper and the Jews’, in Ivo Schöffer, Veelvormig Verleden: Zeventien studies in de vaderlandse geschiedenis (Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw 1878), 159–71.

20 Mineke Bosch, Een onwrikbaar geloof in rechtvaardigheid: Aletta Jacobs 1854 1929 (Amsterdam: Balans 2005), 420-–2.

21 Jaap Meijer, Willem Anthony Paap 1865– 1923. Zeventiger onder de tachtigers: Het levensverhaal van een vergetene (Amsterdam: Meulenhoff 1959), 161–2.

22 His stepmother liked to talk about Jewish cunning and calculated selfishness. See, for example, the letter from Mariane Domela-Meyer to Adriaan Domela, Amsterdam, 13 October 1869: Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (International Institute of Social History), Amsterdam (hereafter IISG), Archive Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis (hereafter Archive FDN), inv. no. 821.

23 Meijer, Zij lieten hun sporen achter, 149; J. C. H. Blom and J. J. Cahen, ‘Joodse Nederlanders, Nederlandse joden en joden in Nederland (1870–1940)’, in Blom, Fuks-Mansfeld and Schöffer (eds), Geschiedenis van de joden in Nederland, 247–312.

24 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Carnets, ed. Pierre Haubtmann, vol. 2 (Paris: M. Rivière 1961), 337.

25 For Belgium, see Guy Vanschoenbeek, ‘Socialisten: gezellen zonder vaderland? De Belgische Werkliedenpartij en haar verhouding tot het “vaderland België”, 1885–1940’, Bijdragen tot de Eigentijdse Geschiedenis, no. 3, 1997, 237–55. As early as 1862, Moses Hess was complaining about the climate of hostility towards Jews among German socialists; see Edmund Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sozialismus vom Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts bis 1914 (Berlin: Colloquium 1962), 199. For Germany, see also Lars Fischer, The Socialist Response to Antisemitism in Imperial Germany (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 2007).

26 Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, 66–7; Nancy L. Green, ‘Socialist anti-Semitism, defense of a bourgeois Jew and discovery of the Jewish proletariat: changing attitudes of French socialists before 1914’, International Review of Social History, vol. 30, no. 3, 1985, 374–99 (379, 385).

27 Congrès International ouvrier socialiste tenu à Bruxelles du 16 au 23 août 1891, Histoire de la IIe Internationale, vol. 8 (Geneva: Minkoff Reprints 1977), ‘La question juive’, 41–4. It was remarkable that philosemitism was equated with antisemitism because a philosemitic movement had never existed. There were, at most, individuals who stood up and helped the Jews. The motion was therefore aimed at weakening the fight against antisemitism. See Shulamit Volkov, ‘The immunization of social democracy against anti-Semitism in Imperial Germany’, in Walter Grab (ed.), Juden und Jüdische Aspekte in der Deutschen Arbeiterbewegung 1848–1918, Jahrbuch des Instituts für Deutsche Geschichte, vol. 2 (Tel-Aviv: Universität Tel-Aviv, Institut für Deutsche Geschichte 1977), 63–83.

28 Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, 66–7; Green, ‘Socialist anti-semitism, defense of a bourgeois Jew and discovery of the Jewish proletariat’, 379, 385.

29 Labour Leader, 19 December 1891. For similar trends in the German workers’ movement, see Robert S. Wistrich, ‘The SPD and antisemitism in the 1890s’, European Studies Review (now European History Quarterly), vol. 7, no. 2, 1977, 177–97.

30 Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, De Bijbel, zijn ontstaan en zijn geschiedenis: Eene historisch-kritische verhandeling ter ontwikkeling van het arbeidende volk (Amsterdam: J. Hoekstra 1893), 57.

31 Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, Van christen tot anarchist: Gedenkschriften (Amsterdam: Scheltema en Holkema 1910), 321.

32 Ibid.

33 It is striking, though understandable for freethinkers, that the religious component of socialist antisemitism was mostly anti-clerical. What this strand held against the Jews was not so much that they had killed Christ, but that they had invented him.

34 ‘Een ernstig woord aan Israël: Naar aanleiding van de jongste plundertochten tegen de Sociaal-Democraten te Amsterdam’, Recht voor Allen, 5 March 1887. The Orange Fury refers to anti-socialist riots during the celebration of the seventieth anniversary of King William III.

35 Recht voor Allen, 14 July 1886; Recht voor Allen, 5 March 1887; Recht voor Allen, 15 August 1889; Recht voor Allen, 5 September 1889.

36 Smous is a pejorative word for a Jew that includes notions like ‘impostors’ and ‘shady traders’.

37 Recht voor Allen, 20 March 1890. The Rothschilds had already been subject to frequent criticism in the journal. Epithets such as ‘Jewish money wolves’ or ‘money-grubbing Jews’ were typical. A great Jewish conspiracy (at the stock market, in the press and in the judiciary) was continuously implied. See, for example, Recht voor Allen, 8 May 1889; Recht voor Allen, 18 October 1889; Recht voor Allen, 22 October 1889; and Recht voor Allen, 7 November 1889.

38 Recht voor Allen, 22 August 1889.

39 Letter from H. J. Stratemeyer to Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, 24 May 1893: IISG, Archive FDN, inv. nr. 237.

40 See De Volkstribuun, 2 June 1894; De Volkstribuun, 16 June 1894; De Volkstribuun, 21 July 1894.

41 In De Volkstribuun of 2 March 1895, we find the following polemic directed at the Limburger Koerier: ‘But tell me why you didn’t write a letter about the new scandal in France, in which the main role was again played by Jews? That case of this Lavaillant St Etienne, with the Schwob brothers … that De Volkstribuun already mentioned in its 16th issue. I hope you are not going to keep silent about it, because it's a socialist magazine that was the only outlet to have the courage to make the scandal public? … I hope you are not going to keep silent, because the socialist Petite Republique was the only big magazine in Paris that is not for sale, not even for Jews’ money?’

42 Lars Fischer has shown that, for late Imperial Germany, the socialist response to antisemitism was similarly defined by a preoccupation with the question of ‘philosemitism’. Fischer, The Socialist Response to Antisemitism in Imperial Germany, 21–36. See also Brendan McGeever and Satnam Virdee, ‘Antisemitism and socialist strategy in Europe, 1880–1917: an introduction’, in these pages.

43 The number of Jews in the Netherlands was 97,324 that year (1889), that is, 2.15 per cent of the Dutch population. Although the growth of the population increased in absolute numbers to 115,000 in 1920, the percentage was, relatively speaking, smaller than in 1889. Blom and Cahen, ‘Joodse Nederlanders, Nederlandse joden en joden in Nederland’, 250, 254; Emanuel Boekman, Demografie van der joden in Nederland (Amsterdam: M. Hertzberger 1936).

44 Paul van Horssen and Dick Rietveld, ‘Socialisten in Amsterdam 1878–1898: Een sociaal profiel van de SDB- en de SDAP-aanhang’, Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis, vol. 16, no. 4, 1990, 387–406 (393–7, 405–6).

45 Theo van Tijn, ‘Geschiedenis van de Amsterdamse diamanthandel en –nijverheid (1845–1897)’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis, vol. 87, 1974, 16–69 and 160–201 (178).

46 Hofmeester, Van Talmoed tot Statuut, 85; C. van der Velde, De ANDB: Een overzicht van zijn ontstaan, zijne ontwikkeling en zijne beteekenis (Amsterdam: ANDB 1925), 29. I have been unable to find data on the relationship between Jewish and non-Jewish workers, but there was little enthusiasm among Jews for a Jewish trade union, as the Jewish religious diamond association Betsalel shows. This organization remained small (1905: 205 members, 1910: 240 members) and did not have a resistance fund.

47 Van Horssen and Rietveld, ‘Socialisten in Amsterdam’, 405.

48 Blom and Cahen, ‘Joodse Nederlanders, Nederlandse joden en joden in Nederland’, 270.

49 Salvador Bloemgarten, ‘De vlegeljaren van de Amsterdamse joodse socialisten: 1890–1894’, 78ste Jaarboek van het Genootschap Amstelodamum (Amsterdam: Genootschap Amstelodamum 1986), 135–76 (138, 156–7).

50 Het Volk, 2 April 1932. Sam W. Coltof was a dogmatist and not free of anti-Jewish sentiments himself.

51 Letter from Henri Polak to Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, 18 November 1892: IISG, Archive FDN, inv. nr. 184.

52 Recht voor Allen, 23 April 1892.

53 W. H. Vliegen, De dageraad der volksbevrijding: Schetsen en tafereelen uit de socialistische beweging in Nederland, vol. 2 (Amsterdam: S. L. van Looy 1905), 409.

54 A. M. Reens, Ghetto Ghijntjes, with illustrations by Van Karel Verbrugge (Utrecht: A. W. Bruna and Zoon's n.d.). The cover was a stereotypical representation of Jewish citizens. The complicated nature of Reens's relation to antisemitism is also evident from the fact that he was one of the initiators of the Ferdinand Domela Fund that guaranteed Domela Nieuwenhuis and his family an income in old age.

55 Letter from Abraham Mozes Reens to Henri H. van Kol, 17 February 1893: IISG, Archive Henri Hubert van Kol, inv. nr. 17.

56 Henri Polak, ‘Boekbeoordeling’, Ons Blad, 1 August 1893.

57 ‘Notulen huishoudelijke vergadering Afdeling Amsterdam, November 20, 1893’: IISG, Archive SDB, inv. nr. 24.

58 ‘Strijdpenningen’, Ons Blad, 1 August 1893.

59 ‘Notulenboek afdeling Amsterdam SDB, January 29, 1893’: IISG, Archive SDB, inv. nr. 26.

60 Wilhelmina Frederika von Barnekow-Tindal, Achter de Schermen! Onthullingen uit onze ‘deftige’ kringen, part 3 (Amsterdam: J. A. Fortuijn 1891), 21–2. See also H. J. Scheffer, Henry Tindal: Een ongewoon heer met ongewone besognes (Bussum: Fibula-Van Dishoeck 1976), 82–92. Wilhelmina (Willy) Tindal, sister of Henry Tindal, married Hans von Barnekow in 1885. It is almost certain that he wrote the brochures in his wife's name.

61 P. de Rooy, ‘Een hevig gewarrel: Humanitair idealisme en socialisme in Nederland rond de eeuwwisseling’, Bijdragen en Mededelingen tot de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, vol. 106, no. 4, 1991, 625–40 (628, 636).

62 Dennis Bos, Waarachtige Volksvrienden: De vroege socialistische beweging in Amsterdam 1848–1894 (Amsterdam: B. Bakker 2001), 292.

63 In Recht voor Allen of 5 November 1890, Janus Emmenes accused Von Barnekow of having expressed himself in antisemitic terms about the editors of the Algemeen Handelsblad. In Recht voor Allen of 30 October 1890, Von Barnekow had written to the editors of the Algemeen Handelsblad as follows: ‘I’ve never heard that one obtains [the requisite civilized manners] by wheeling and dealing with old hare skins and by peddling umbrellas and worn cylinder hats.’ Sam Coltof had already fulminated previously against antisemitism in Recht voor Allen; see, for example, Recht voor Allen, 22 August 1889. Frank van der Goes also turned against the notion that ‘the enmity of the Socialists, i.e. the International Soc. Dem. Party, focused mainly and primarily against the Israelites’ (Recht voor Allen, 5 March 1891). In subsequent years, Recht voor Allen condemned antisemitism in its columns with some regularity. See, for example, Recht voor Allen, 9 August 1892; Recht voor Allen, 20 April 1893; Recht voor Allen, 4 July 1893; and Recht voor Allen, 21 February 1894.

64 Bernard Lazare, Une Erreur judiciaire: La vérité sur l’affaire Dreyfus (Paris: P.-V. Stock 1897), 9.

65 Alexandre Zévaès in La Petite Republique, 10 November 1896, quoted in Nelly Wilson, Bernard-Lazare: Antisemitism and the Problem of Jewish Identity in Late Nineteenth Century France (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 1978), 143.

66 Ibid., 160.

67 Jean Maitron, Histoire du mouvement anarchiste en France (1880–1914) (Paris: Société universitaire d’editions et de librairie 1955).

68 Émile Zola, De kwestie Dreyfus: Brief aan het Fransche volk (n.p. n.d.).

69 Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, ‘Het anti-semitisme een sociaal vraagstuk?’, De Vrije Socialist, 24 August 1898.

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid.

72 McGeever and Virdee, ‘Antisemitism and socialist strategy in Europe’.

73 On the Dreyfus movement in Germany, see Fischer, The Socialist Response to Antisemitism in Imperial Germany, 152–61; Jack Jacobs, ‘Marxism and anti-Semitism: Kautsky's perspective’, International Review of Social History, vol. 30, no. 3, 1985, 400–30; Kurt Koszyk, ‘Sozialdemokratie und Antisemitismus zur Zeit der Dreyfus-Affäre’, in Ludger Heid and Arnold Paucker (eds), Juden und deutsche Arbeiterbewgung bis 1933: Soziale Utopien und religiös-kulturelle Traditionen (Tübingen: Mohr 1992) 59–78 (73–5).

74 Domela Nieuwenhuis, Van christen tot anarchist, 356.

75 Jack Jacobs, On Socialists and ‘the Jewish Question’ after Marx (New York and London: New York University Press 1992), 15; Green, ‘Socialist anti-Semitism, defense of a bourgeois Jew and discovery of the Jewish proletariat’. When the Dreyfus Affair neared its climax in 1898, Jewish migrant workers from Eastern Europe in France turned to French socialists in an attempt to counter the claim that the Dreyfus Affair was a bourgeois issue; they accused the socialists of underestimating antisemitism. See Groupe des ouvriers juifs socialistes de Paris, Lettre des ouvriers juifs de Paris au Parti socialiste français (Paris: J. Allemane 1898); and Green, ‘Socialist anti-Semitism, defense of a bourgeois Jew and discovery of the Jewish proletariat’, 393–4.

76 Letter from Christiaan Cornelissen to Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, August 1898: IISG, Archive FDN, inv. nr. 45.

77 Wilhelm Liebknecht, ‘Nachträgliches zur “Affaire”’, Die Fackel, vol. 1, no. 19, 4 October 1899, 1–12 (3).

78 Silberner, Sozialisten zur Judenfrage, 211.

79 The piece was written by Anton van Sprinkhuysen and directed by Alex Saalborn. See Het Nieuws van den Dag, 23 December 1897, 10.

80 J. Wortling (ed.), Bescheiden betreffende buitenlandse politiek van Nederland: 1848–1919, Second period 1971–1998, Part VI (The Hague: Nijhoff 1972), XII–XIII.

81 Report by Police Inspector A. Heeroma, 6 November 1898: Archive of the Municipality of Amsterdam, inv. 625.

82 Letter from Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis to Émile Zola, 21 January 1898: IISG, Archive FDN, inv. nr. 311.

83 Wortling (ed.), Bescheiden betreffende buitenlandse politiek van Nederland, XII–XIII.

84 Letter from Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis to Émile Zola, 2 February 1898: IISG, Archive FDN, inv. nr. 311.

85 Domela Nieuwenhuis, ‘Het anti-semitisme een sociaal vraagstuk?’.

86 De Vrije Socialist, 17 May 1905.

87 De Vrije Socialist, 4 December 1912.

88 Bernard Lazare, Contre l’antisemitisme (Paris 1896), 5–6, quoted in Victor M. Glasberg, ‘Intent and consequences: the “Jewish question” in the French socialist movement of the late nineteenth century’, Jewish Social Studies, vol. 36, no. 1, 1974, 61–71 (64).

89 McGeever and Virdee, ‘Antisemitism and socialist strategy in Europe’.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jan Willem Stutje

Jan Willem Stutje is a member of the History Department at Ghent University, and also Research Fellow at the International Institute of Social History and the International Institute for Research and Education, both in Amsterdam. He has published on the Dutch and international workers' movement, and is the author of several biographies, including those of the Dutch Communist Paul de Groot (2000) and Ernest Mandel (in English Ernest Mandel: A Rebel's Dream Deferred, Verso 2009).

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