Human and Physical Dilemmas in Small-Scale Irrigation Development: Evidence from Climate-Sensitive Northern Ghana

Abstract

Irrigation is widely accepted as an effective adaptive management strategy for small-scale farmers of traditional rain-fed crops in areas experiencing climate change. These changes include timing of onset of the rainy season and the amount and intensity of rainfall—both issues of concern to rural farmers in northern Ghana. Despite obvious benefits, it is not apparent if farmers in this area perceive irrigation as a viable or attainable option to deal with potential food insecurity related to climate change. In this article, we examine three main issues: (1) dry spells during the early parts of the farming season, (2) impacts of these dry spells on farming systems, and (3) farmer adaptation through different agricultural water management practices. A geographic information system and remote sensing analysis using Landsat 8 and field Global Positioning System data supports findings from seventy-two in-depth interviews with smallholder farmers. Results from this integrated assessment reveal sociocultural and physical barriers to manual irrigation, including labor needs, water source proximity, and size of operational land holding. Increasing climate variability in this region will necessitate adaptation by local farmers; however, we argue that irrigation projects should not be initiated without detailed understanding of local sociocultural contexts. Effectively moving water from source to crop will require integrative knowledge of local hydrogeology and sociocultural norms.

在气候变化地区, 种植传统雨水作物的小农户所采用的灌溉方式, 被广泛认为是有效的适应性管理策略。加纳北部农民所关心的气候变化, 包括雨季开始时间、降雨量和降雨强度。尽管灌溉有明显的优势, 但是, 我们并不清楚该地区农民是否认为灌溉是可行的、是否认为灌溉是气候变化导致潜在粮食短缺的应对措施。我们研究了三个主要问题：（1）耕种季节初期的干旱期, （2）这些干旱期对农业系统的影响, （3）农民的适应（即, 各种农业用水管理行为）。利用地理信息系统、遥感、Landsat 8和GPS数据, 本文分析了对小农户的72个深入采访。综合评估结果揭示了人工灌溉的社会文化障碍和自然障碍, 包括劳动力需求、水源距离和土地保有量。加纳北部地区的农民需要适应气候变化的加剧。然而, 我们认为, 如果缺乏对当地社会文化背景的详细了解, 就不应该启动灌溉项目。水从水源地到农作物的有效转移, 需要当地水文地质和社会文化规范的综合知识。

La irrigación es ampliamente aceptada como estrategia efectiva de gestión adaptativa de los pequeños agricultores dedicados a cultivos tradicionales que dependen de la lluvia en áreas sujetas al cambio climático. Estos cambios incluyen el calendario del inicio de la estación lluviosa y la cantidad e intensidad de las lluvias–ambas cosas preocupantes para los cultivadores rurales del norte de Ghana–. A pesar de los beneficios obvios, no está claro si los agricultores de esta región perciben el riego como una opción viable o alcanzable para lidiar con una potencial inseguridad alimentaria relacionada con el cambio climático. En este artículo, examinamos tres cuestiones importantes: (1) los períodos de sequía durante el comienzo de la temporada agrícola, (2) los impactos derivados de estos períodos de sequía sobre los sistemas agrícolas, y (3) la adaptación del agricultor por medio de diferentes prácticas de manejo del agua en la agricultura. Un sistema de información geográfica y un análisis de percepción remota con los que se usan datos del Landsat 8 y del Sistema de Posicionamiento Global de campo apoyan los hallazgos de setenta y dos entrevistas a profundidad entre pequeños agricultores. Los resultados de esta evaluación integrada revelan la existencia de barreras socioculturales y físicas al riego manual, las cuales incluyen necesidades de manos de obra, proximidad de las fuentes de agua y el tamaño del terreno operacional. La creciente variabilidad climática en esta región demandará adaptación de los agricultores locales; sin embargo, sostenemos que los proyectos de riego no deberían iniciarse sin la comprensión detallada de los contextos socioculturales locales. Para llevar de manera adecuada el agua desde su fuente hasta los cultivos requerirá un conocimiento integral de la hidrogeología local y de las normas socioculturales.

Key Words:

• agriculture water management
• dry spells
• Ghana
• hand irrigation
• small-scale farmers

关键词:

• 农业用水管理
• 干旱期
• 加纳
• 手工灌溉
• 小农户。

Palabras clave:

• Ghana
• manejo del agua para la agricultura
• pequeños agricultores
• períodos de sequía
• riego manual

Acknowledgments

This research could not have been completed without the help of our research assistants Isabella Adams and Yakubu Iddi Ziblim. Martin Adoyika was also instrumental in helping us locate appropriate study sites. Our sincere gratitude is extended to the research participants for taking the time to speak with our research team. This article has benefitted from the insightful critiques of three anonymous reviewers and the thoughtful editorial advice of Professor Heejun Chang.

Notes

1 Although there is no one accepted definition of culture, we follow Matsumoto (1996) and define culture as “the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, but different for each individual, [and] communicated from one generation to the next” (16). Relatedly, gender refers to socially constructed norms, behaviors, and roles associated with being a woman or man, as well as relationships with each other. As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time. For a thorough discussion of gender as a social construct, see Skalko (2020).

2 The code is publicly available at https://code.earthengine.google.com/830cad7f0d5397ae674493106eb8e903.

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by University of Denver’s Center for Community Engagement to advance Scholarship and Learning (CCESL): [Grant Number Grant # 86847].

Notes on contributors

Hanson Nyantakyi-Frimpong

HANSON NYANTAKYI-FRIMPONG is an Associate Professor in the Department of Geography & the Environment, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80210. E-mail: [email protected]. His research interests include political ecology, the human dimensions of global environmental change, and sustainable agriculture and food systems.

G. Thomas LaVanchy

G. THOMAS LaVANCHY is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Geography, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078. E-mail: [email protected]. His research interests include political ecology, hydrology, and social vulnerability and adaptation in the context of climate change and water insecurity.

Madeline M. Kelley

MADELINE M. KELLEY is a Geography PhD Candidate in the School of Geographical Sciences & Urban Planning, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, and a physical science aid with the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, MS. E-mail: [email protected]. Her research interests include physical geography, geomorphology, GISc/RS, and sediment transport.