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ABSTRACT
This article advances a rhetorical theory of deixis, a theoretical and methodological orientation that infuses the linguistic concept of deixis with rhetorical understandings of ethos, place, and time. Deixis reveals the rhetorical dynamics within the fabric of spoken discourse, dynamics that often refer to what is outside the text to make sense of what is within it. Ultimately, I argue that identifying the deictic indicators within a speech text enables the critic to pinpoint where, how, and why a speaker activates the physical elements of the speech situation as a material means of persuasion. After outlining the theoretical tenets of this approach, I analyze Harry S. Truman's Address to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People on June 29, 1947, to show how a rhetorical theory of deixis orients the critic to the bodies, places, and temporalities implied in and displayed through speech.
Acknowledgments
Allison M. Prasch is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Communication Studies at the University of Minnesota. She would like to thank Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, Mary Stuckey, Art Walzer, Richard Graff, Ronald Walter Greene, E. Johanna Hartelius, Debra Hawhee, David Zarefsky, Barbara Biesecker, and the reviewers for their careful engagement with this essay. She would also like to acknowledge Megan Fitzmaurice, J. David Cisneros, Jessy Ohl, Marnie Ritchie, and Brad Serber for their encouragement of this project.
Notes
1. See, for example, Carole Blair, Marsha S. Jeppeson, and Enrico Pucci, “Public Memorializing in Postmodernity: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial as Prototype,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 77, no. 3 (1991): 263–88; Ronald Walter Greene, “Another Materialist Rhetoric,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 15, no. 1 (1998): 21–40; Carole Blair, “Contemporary U.S. Memorial Sites as Exemplars of Rhetoric's Materiality,” in Rhetorical Bodies, ed. Jack Selzer and Sharon Crowley (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999), 16–57; Cara A. Finnegan, “Documentary as Art in U.S. Camera,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 31, no. 2 (2001): 37–68; Roxanne Mountford, “On Gender and Rhetorical Space,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 31, no. 1 (2001): 41–71; Raka Shome, “Space Matters: The Power and Practice of Space,” Communication Theory 13, no. 1 (2003): 39–56; Paul Messaris, “Review Essay: What's Visual about ‘Visual Rhetoric’?,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 95, no. 2 (2009): 210–23; Kenneth S. Zagacki and Victoria J. Gallagher, “Rhetoric and Materiality in the Museum Park at the North Carolina Museum of Art,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 95, no. 2 (2009): 171–91; Greg Dickinson, Carole Blair, and Brian L. Ott, eds., Places of Public Memory (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010); Danielle Endres and Samantha Senda-Cook, “Location Matters: The Rhetoric of Place in Protest,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 97, no. 3 (2011): 257–82; Debra Hawhee, “Looking Into Aristotle's Eyes: Toward a Theory of Rhetorical Vision,” Advances in the History of Rhetoric 14, no. 2 (2011): 139–65; Brian L. Ott and Diane Marie Keeling, “Cinema and Choric Connection: Lost in Translation as Sensual Experience,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 97, no. 4 (2011): 363–86; Debra Hawhee, “Rhetoric's Sensorium,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 101, no. 1 (2015): 2–17.
2. David Zarefsky, “Presidential Rhetoric and the Power of Definition,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 34, no. 3 (2004): 610.
3. G. P. Mohrmann, “Elegy in a Critical Grave-Yard,” Western Journal of Speech Communication 44, no. 4 (1980): 273.
4. Karl Bühler, Theory of Language: The Representational Function of Language, trans. Donald Fraser Goodwin and Achim Eschbach (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2011), 93.
5. Bühler, Theory of Language: The Representational Function of Language, 121.
6. John Lyons, Semantics, vol. I and II (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 637.
7. “δεῖξις,” Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1940), http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Ddei%3Dcis
8. “δείκνυμι,” Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1889), http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3Ddei%2Fknumi
9. Richard McKeon, “The Uses of Rhetoric in a Technological Age: Architectonic Productive Arts,” in The Prospect of Rhetoric, ed. Lloyd F. Bitzer and Edwin Black (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971), 58. See also Lawrence J. Prelli, “Rhetorics of Display: An Introduction,” in Rhetorics of Display, ed. Lawrence J. Prelli (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 2–3; Edward E. Schiappa, The Beginnings of Rhetorical Theory in Classical Greece (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999), 198–99.
10. Debra Hawhee, Bodily Arts: Rhetoric and Athletics in Ancient Greece (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004), 175.
11. Aristotle, On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse, trans. George A. Kennedy 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 1.2.1.
12. Michael Calvin McGee, “Text, Context, and the Fragmentation of Contemporary Culture,” Western Journal of Communication 54, no. 3 (1990): 283 (emphasis original).
13. For several excellent accounts of how close textual analysis emerged in response to this early focus on history/biography and studies of social movements, see Martin J. Medhurst, “The Academic Study of Public Address: A Tradition in Transition,” in Landmark Essays on American Public Address, ed. Martin J. Medhurst (Davis, CA: Hermagoras Press, 1993), ix–xliii; Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, “Rhetorical Criticism 2009: A Study in Method,” in The Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address, ed. Shawn J. Parry-Giles and J. Michael Hogan (Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 86–107; David Zarefsky, “Public Address Scholarship in the New Century: Achievements and Challenges,” in The Handbook of Rhetoric & Public Address, ed. Shawn J. Parry-Giles and J. Michael Hogan (Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 67–85; Martin J. Medhurst, “The History of Public Address as an Academic Study,” in The Handbook of Rhetoric & Public Address, ed. Shawn J. Parry-Giles and J. Michael Hogan (Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 19–66.
14. Stephen E. Lucas, “The Renaissance of American Public Address: Text and Context in Rhetorical Criticism,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 74, no. 2 (1988): 246.
15. See, for example, Michael C. Leff and G. P. Mohrmann, “Lincoln at Cooper Union: A Rhetorical Analysis of the Text,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 60, no. 3 (1974): 346–58; G. P. Mohrmann and Michael C. Leff, “Lincoln at Cooper Union: A Rationale for Neo-Classical Criticism,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 60, no. 4 (1974): 459–67; Bruce E. Gronbeck, “Rhetorical History and Rhetorical Criticism: A Distinction,” The Speech Teacher 24, no. 4 (1975): 309–20; Barnet Baskerville, “Must We All Be ‘Rhetorical Critics’?,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 63, no. 2 (1977): 107–16.
16. Michael Leff, “Textual Criticism: The Legacy of G. P. Mohrmann,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 72, no. 4 (1986): 385.
17. Leff, “Textual Criticism: The Legacy of G. P. Mohrmann,” 382. For more discussion of close textual criticism, see the special issue of the Western Journal of Speech Communication 54, no. 2 (1990): 249–376.
18. Stephen E. Lucas, “The Schism in Rhetorical Scholarship,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 67, no. 1 (1981): 1–20.
19. Michael Calvin McGee, “A Materialist's Conception of Rhetoric,” in Rhetoric, Materiality, & Politics, ed. Barbara A. Biesecker and John Lewis Lucaites (New York: Peter Lang, 2009), 38.
20. Carole Blair, “Reflections on Criticism and Bodies: Parables from Public Places,” Western Journal of Communication 65, no. 3 (2001): 288. For several important essays theorizing material rhetoric(s), see Dana Cloud, “The Materiality of Discourse as an Oxymoron: A Challenge to Critical Rhetoric,” Western Journal of Communication 58, no. 3 (1994): 141–63; Greene, “Another Materialist Rhetoric.”
21. McGee, “A Materialist's Conception of Rhetoric,” 23.
22. Michael K. Middleton, Samantha Senda-Cook, and Danielle Endres, “Articulating Rhetorical Field Methods: Challenges and Tensions,” Western Journal of Communication 75, no. 4 (2011): 391.
23. Middleton, Senda-Cook, and Endres, “Articulating Rhetorical Field Methods: Challenges and Tensions,” 387.
24. Middleton, Senda-Cook, and Endres, “Articulating Rhetorical Field Methods: Challenges and Tensions,” 396.
25. William F. Hanks, “The Indexical Ground of Deictic Reference,” in Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon, ed. Alessandro Duranti and Charles Goodwin (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 48.
26. Beata Stawarska, “‘You’ and I,’ ‘Here and ‘Now’: Spatial and Social Situatedness in Deixis,” International Journal of Philosophical Studies 16, no. 3 (2008): 402 (emphasis original).
27. Holger Deissel, “Deixis and Demonstratives,” in An International Handbook of Natural Language Meaning, ed. Claudia Maienborn, Klaus von Heusinger, and Paul Portner (Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012), 1.
28. Bühler, Theory of Language: The Representational Function of Language, 118.
29. For more on the relationship between ethos and location, see Risa Applegarth, “Genre, Location, and Mary Austin's Ethos,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 41, no. 1 (2011): 41–63; Julie Nelson Christoph, “Reconceiving Ethos in Relation to the Personal: Strategies of Placement in Pioneer Women's Writing,” College English 64, no. 6 (2002): 660–79; S. Michael Halloran, “Aristotle's Concept of Ethos, or If Not His Somebody Else's,” Rhetoric Review 1, no. 1 (1982): 58–63; Michael J. Hyde, “Introduction: Rhetorically, We Dwell,” in The Ethos of Rhetoric, ed. Michael J. Hyde (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004), xiii–xxviii; Nedra Reynolds, “Ethos as Location: New Sites for Understanding Discursive Authority,” Rhetoric Review 11, no. 2 (1993): 325–38.
30. Applegarth, “Genre, Location, and Mary Austin's Ethos,” 49, 59.
31. Hyde, “Introduction: Rhetorically, We Dwell,” xxi.
32. Jeffrey Walker, Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiquity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 9 (emphasis original).
33. Megan Foley, “Time for Epideictic,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 101, no. 1 (2015): 211.
34. Foley, “Time for Epideictic,” 211.
35. Lawrence W. Rosenfield, “The Practical Celebration of Epideictic,” in Rhetoric in Transition: Studies in the Nature and Uses of Rhetoric, ed. Eugene E. White (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1980), 135.
36. See, for example, Gregory S. Aldrete, Gestures and Acclamations in Ancient Rome (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Anthony Corbeill, Nature Embodied: Gesture in Ancient Rome (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); James Fredal, Rhetorical Action in Ancient Athens: Persuasive Artistry from Solon to Demosthenes (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2006); Kathleen S. Lamp, A City of Marble: The Rhetoric of Augustan Rome (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2014); McKeon, “The Uses of Rhetoric in a Technological Age: Architectonic Productive Arts,” 44–63.
37. Deissel, “Deixis and Demonstratives,” 11.
38. Deissel, “Deixis and Demonstratives,” 14.
39. Carole Blair, Greg Dickinson, and Brian L. Ott, “Introduction: Rhetoric/Memory/Place,” in Places of Public Memory: The Rhetoric of Museums and Memorials, ed. Greg Dickinson, Carole Blair, and Brian L. Ott (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2010), 24.
40. Endres and Senda-Cook, “Location Matters: The Rhetoric of Place in Protest,” 265.
41. Endres and Senda-Cook, “Location Matters: The Rhetoric of Place in Protest,” 266–71.
42. Stawarska, “‘You’ and I,’ ‘Here and ‘Now’: Spatial and Social Situatedness in Deixis,” 402 (emphasis original).
43. Endres and Senda-Cook, “Location Matters: The Rhetoric of Place in Protest,” 265.
44. For further discussion on the sensory and affective qualities of speaking spaces, see Mountford, “On Gender and Rhetorical Space; Roxanne Mountford, The Gendered Pulpit: Preaching in American Protestant Spaces (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2003); Christopher Reid, Imprison'd Wranglers: The Rhetorical Culture of the House of Commons, 1760–1800 (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012).
45. For a helpful discussion of how place has played a vital role within the Western intellectual tradition, see Edward Casey, The Fate of Place: A Philosophical History (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997).
46. John E. Smith, “Time, Times, and the ‘Right Time,’” The Monist 53, no. 1 (1969): 3.
47. Deissel, “Deixis and Demonstratives,” 17.
48. Deissel, “Deixis and Demonstratives,” 19.
49. Eric Charles White, Kaironomia: On the Will to Invent (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 13.
50. White, Kaironomia: On the Will to Invent, 14.
51. Frank Kermode, The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000), 47, 46.
52. Bühler, Theory of Language: The Representational Function of Language, 93.
53. Doreen Massey, Space, Place, and Gender (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 261.
54. Massey, Space, Place, and Gender, 5.
55. Leff, “Textual Criticism: The Legacy of G. P. Mohrmann,” 384–85.
56. William E. Leuchtenburg, “The Conversion of Harry Truman,” American Heritage 42, no. 7 (1991): 21.
57. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 1992), 569.
58. Garth E. Pauley, “Harry Truman and the NAACP: A Case Study in Presidential Persuasion on Civil Rights,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 2, no. 2 (1999): 213. See also Garth E. Pauley, The Modern Presidency & Civil Rights: Rhetoric on Race from Roosevelt to Nixon (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2001).
59. This strategy is best outlined in a memo Clark Clifford wrote to the president dated August 17, 1947 (available online at http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/1948campaign/large/docs/documents/index.php?pagenumber=1&documentdate=1948–08–17&documentid=1–2&studycollectionid=Election). Clark Clifford to Harry S. Truman, August 17, 1948; Political File; Clifford Papers; Truman Library.
60. Leuchtenburg, “The Conversion of Harry Truman,” 2.
61. Leuchtenburg, “The Conversion of Harry Truman,” 2.
62. Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Berkley Publishing Corporation, 1973), 183.
63. Leuchtenberg observes that Truman's actions on race relations as a public official in Missouri and as U.S. senator “appears to have derived both from conviction and from self-interest. . . . Truman always had to bear in mind that there were a great many African-American voters in Missouri.” William E. Leuchtenburg, The White House Looks South: Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 157.
64. Leuchtenburg, “The Conversion of Harry Truman,” 6–7.
65. Leuchtenburg, “The Conversion of Harry Truman,” 6.
66. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 24.
67. Raymond Frey, “Truman's Speech to the NAACP, 29 June 1947,” in The Civil Rights Legacy of Harry S. Truman, ed. Raymond H. Geselbracht (Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2007), 93.
68. Walter White, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White (New York: The Viking Press, 1948), 347–48.
69. Scott A. Sandage, “A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939–1963,” The Journal of American History 80, no. 1 (1993): 139. For more on the appropriation of Lincoln's memory during the 19th and 20th centuries, see Merrill D. Petersen, Lincoln in American Memory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Barry Schwartz, Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
70. Royal Cortissoz to Henry Bacon, April 6, 1919, as quoted in Sandage, “A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939–1963,” 141.
71. Warren G. Harding, “Address by the Hon. Warren G. Harding, President of the United States,” May 30, 1922. Printed in Edward Franklin Concklin, ed. The Lincoln Memorial in Washington (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1927), 87.
72. Harding, “Address,” in Conklin, The Lincoln Memorial, 88.
73. J. Le Count Chestnut, “Mock Ideal of Lincoln at Memorial: Have Jim Crow Services; Prominent Citizens Offered Insults,” Chicago Defender, June 10, 1922, p. 1.
74. Walter White to Marian Anderson, March 24, 1939. NAACP Papers; Collection: Papers of the NAACP, Part 02: 1919–1939, Personal Correspondence of Selected NAACP Files; Series: Personal Correspondence of NAACP Officials; Folder: 001464-019-0686 (Walter White Correspondence March 1939), ProQuest History Vault.
75. “The Triumph of Marian Anderson,” Chicago Defender, April 22, 1939, p. 14.
76. “Miss Anderson to Sing at Lincoln Shrine,” Washington Post, March 31, 1939, p. 11; Edward T. Folliard, “Ickes Introduces Contralto at Lincoln Memorial,” Washington Post, April 10, 1939, p. 1; Sandage, “A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939–1963,” 145.
77. Harold L. Ickes, “Address,” April 9, 1939. Printed in “Text of Secretary Ickes Speech at Anderson Easter Recital,” Chicago Defender, April 15, 1939, p. 2.
78. Edward S. Casey observes certain places provide “an active material inducement [that draws out] out the appropriate memories in that location.” In this instance, Truman's presence in place simultaneously rejected one memory—Harding's 1922 dedication—even as it affirmed the other—Marian Anderson's 1939 concert. Edward S. Casey, “Public Memory in Place and Time,” in Framing Public Memory, ed. Kendall R. Phillips (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004), 32.
79. Walter White to David K. Niles, April 11, 1947; WHCF: OF 413; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People [1 of 2], Box 1382; Truman Papers, Truman Library. In the end, however, Ms. Anderson would not sing at the event due to a health issue.
80. Press Release, “Pres. Truman to Speak at NAACP 38th Conference,” May 30, 1947. NAACP Papers; Collection: Papers of the NAACP, Part 01: Meetings of the Board of Directors, Records of Annual Conferences, Major Speeches, and Special Reports; Series: Annual Conference Proceedings, 1910–1950 cont.; Folder: 001412-012-0000, ProQuest History Vault.
81. Press Release, “Largest Mass Meeting in Nation's History Planned by NAACP,” June 6, 1947. NAACP Papers; Collection: Papers of the NAACP, Part 01: Meetings of the Board of Directors, Records of Annual Conferences, Major Speeches, and Special Reports; Series: Annual Conference Proceedings, 1910–1950 cont.; Folder: 001412-012-0000, ProQuest History Vault.
82. David K. Niles to Matthew J. Connelly, June 16, 1947; Elsey Papers, Box 17; Folder: 1947—June 29—NAACP Speech; Truman Library. Interestingly, Niles' memo to Connelly is identical to an earlier memo Niles received from Philleo Nash, a special assistant in the White House who was also African American. For more discussion of Nash's role in writing this speech, see Pauley, “Harry Truman and the NAACP: A Case Study in Presidential Persuasion on Civil Rights,” 223.
83. Miscellaneous Note, no author, no date; Elsey Papers, Box 17; Folder: 1947—June 29—NAACP Speech; Truman Library.
84. Harry S. Truman, “Address Before the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People,” June 29, 1947, online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=12686.
85. White to Niles, April 11, 1947.
86. Press Release, “NAACP 38th Conference Held Internationally Important,” June 13, 1947. NAACP Papers; Collection: Papers of the NAACP, Part 01: Meetings of the Board of Directors, Records of Annual Conferences, Major Speeches, and Special Reports; Series: Annual Conference Proceedings, 1910–1950 cont.; Folder: 001412–012–0000, ProQuest History Vault; White, A Man Called White: The Autobiography of Walter White, 348.
87. “Truman Asks Equality for All Americans,” Universal News Vol. 20, Rel. 52, Story 1, June 30, 1947, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdNMhmcVqCU&feature=youtu.be. In a memo to Niles, White informed him that “Arrangements will also be made to have the ceremony photographed for newsreels and possibly to have the entire occasion televised.” White to Niles, April 11, 1947.
88. Truman, “Address Before the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.” All successive quotations from here unless otherwise noted. Deictic indicators have been shown in bold and italics.
89. See Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy.
90. For more on Truman's March 12, 1947, speech, see Denise M. Bostdorff, Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine: A Cold War Call to Arms (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2008).
91. “4th Draft, 6-29-47,” Address to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; PSF, Box 38; Truman Papers, Truman Library; “Original Reading Copy Used by President Truman at the Closing Session of the 38th Annual Conference of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C.”; PSF, Box 24; Truman Papers, Truman Library.
92. To listen to Truman's speech as captured via radio, please visit the recording provided by the University of Virginia's Miller Center (http://millercenter.org/president/truman/speeches/speech-3345). This particular line begins at –10:39.
93. Abraham Lincoln, Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, 1863, https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured_documents/emancipation_proclamation/transcript.html.
94. Truman's final description of “freedom from fear” was an obvious reference to FDR's 1941 State of the Union Address, one that the audience would be well aware of not just because of the historical proximity between 1941 and 1947, but also because of Norman Rockwell's iconic paintings depicting FDR's “Four Freedoms.” These four images were printed on the cover of the Saturday Evening Post in February and March of 1943, circulated widely as war bond posters, and came to represent basic human rights enjoyed by U.S. citizens. Thus, when Truman argued that state and local governments had denied millions of citizens “full freedom from fear,” he acknowledged that these images of U.S. democracy popularized by Rockwell and espoused by the U.S. government were unidentifiable to black Americans. For more on the relationship between these cover images and FDR's 1941 State of the Union address, see James J. Kimble, “The Illustrated Four Freedoms: FDR, Rockwell, and the Margins of the Rhetorical Presidency,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 45, no. 1 (2015): 46–69.
95. Petersen, Lincoln in American Memory, 132, 308.
96. For a detailed analysis of Lincoln's statement within its particular historical context, see David Zarefsky, Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); David Zarefsky, “Lincoln and the House Divided: Launching a National Political Career,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 13, no. 3 (2010): 421–53.
97. Harding, “Address,” in Conklin, The Lincoln Memorial in Washington, 87.
98. Abraham Lincoln, “Response to Evangelical Lutherans,” May 13, 1862, http://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/lincoln5/1:480?rgn=div1;view=fulltext.
99. Harry S. Truman to Mary Truman, June 28, 1947; Post-Presidential File; Truman Papers; Truman Library.
100. “Mr. Truman on Civil Rights,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, June 30, 1947.
101. “Truman Asks Action ‘Now’ on Racism,” The Chicago Defender, July 5, 1947.
102. “Gov't Must Insure Rights to All—Truman Stresses ‘All Americans’ Must Benefit,” Atlanta Daily World, July 1, 1947.
103. “Truman's Speech Makes History,” The Call, July 4, 1947. Clipping found attached to a letter from Emmett A. Scanlan, Jr. to Matt Connelly, July 7, 1947; PPF 200; Folder: 6/29/47—Speech at the Closing Session of the 38th Annual Conference of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Pro); Truman Papers; Truman Library.
104. Dorothy W. Chance to Harry Truman, June 30, 1947; PPF 200; Folder: 6/29/47—Speech at the Closing Session of the 38th Annual Conference of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (Pro); Truman Papers; Truman Library.
105. Marie Hochmuth, “The Criticism of Rhetoric,” in A History and Criticism of American Public Address, ed. Marie Kathryn Hochmuth (New York: Russell & Russell, 1955), 9.
106. See, for example, the special forum on “The Politics of Archival Research” edited by Charles E. Morris, III in Rhetoric & Public Affairs 9, no. 1 (2006): 113–51 and Jacques Derrida, Archive Fever: A Freudian Impression, trans. Eric Prenowitz (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995).
107. Pierre Nora, “Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mémoire,” Representations 26 (1989): 13.
108. Hanks, “The Indexical Ground of Deictic Reference,” 61.