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Articles

Weaponizing speech

Pages 376-395 | Received 06 Dec 2015, Accepted 28 Jun 2016, Published online: 29 Jul 2016
 

ABSTRACT

As the notion of “information warfare” has gained public currency, some forms of communication have been redefined as acts of violence, war, and terrorism. This essay tracks the metaphor of the “information bomb” in theoretical understandings as well as public discourses of terrorism, journalism, and information leaks. The essay then analyzes the 2010 Supreme Court case of Holder vs. Humanitarian Law Project, which redefined speech as having the ability to constitute “material support” for terrorism. The essay argues that trends in the “weaponization of speech” pose important challenges to the status of the First Amendment.

Notes

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13. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Vol. 1 (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 102.

14. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon et al. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), 114.

15. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 1st MIT Press ed. (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1994), 305.

16. Paul Virilio, The Information Bomb, trans. Chris Turner (New York: Verso, 2000), 63; Paul Virilio and Friedrich Kittler, “The Information Bomb: A Conversation,” ed. John Armitage, Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities 4, no. 2 (1999): 82.

17. Virilio, The Information Bomb, 108; Virilio and Kittler, “The Information Bomb: A Conversation,” 83.

18. Virilio and Kittler, “The Information Bomb: A Conversation,” 87; Virilio, The Information Bomb, 112, 134.

19. Paul Virilio and Sylvère Lotringer, Pure War: Twenty-Five Years Later, trans. Mark Politzzatti, Brian O’Keeffe, and Philip Beitchman (Los Angeles: Semiotext(e), 2008), 196.

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22. Michael Calvin McGee, “A Materialist’s Conception of Rhetoric,” in Rhetoric, Materiality, & Politics (New York: Peter Lang, 2010), 17–42. This article has served as a touchstone for understanding rhetoric in the context of New Materialism; it is the first chapter, for example, in Barbara A. Biesecker and John Louis Lucaites, eds., Rhetoric, Materiality, & Politics (New York: Peter Lang, 2010). See also Celeste M. Condit, “Race and Genetics from a Modal Materialist Perspective,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 94, no. 4 (2008): 383–406.

23. McGee, “A Materialist’s Conception of Rhetoric,” 33.

24. McGee, “A Materialist’s Conception of Rhetoric,” 32.

25. Dana Cloud, “The Materiality of Discourse as Oxymoron: A Challenge to Critical Rhetoric,” Western Journal of Communication 58, no. 3 (1994): 141–63. Ronald Walter Greene, “Another Materialist Rhetoric,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 15, no. 1 (1998): 21–41.

26. Jeremy Engels, “Forum: The Violence of Rhetoric,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 99, no. 2 (2013): 180–81.

27. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), 7.

28. William John Thomas Mitchell, Cloning Terror: The War of Images, 9/11 to the Present (University of Chicago Press, 2011), xvii.

29. Hardt and Negri, Multitude, 14.

30. Susan Carruthers, The Media at War: Communication and Conflict in the Twentieth Century (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 169.

31. Carruthers, The Media at War, 171.

32. Rosalind C. Morris, “Images of Untranslatability in the US War on Terror,” Interventions 6, no. 3 (2004): 401–23.

33. Lee Pierce, “The Rhetoric of Traumatic Nationalism in the Ground Zero Mosque Controversy,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 100, no. 1 (2014): 69.

34. Carol K. Winkler, In the Name of Terrorism: Presidents on Political Violence in the Post-World War II Era (State University of New York Press, 2006), 6–7.

35. Barak Obama, “Remarks by President Obama in Address to the United Nations General Assembly,” Whitehouse.gov, September 24, 2014, https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/24/remarks-president-obama-address-united-nations-general-assembly

36. Joshua Lederberg and William J. Clinton, “Keeping America Secure for the 21st Century,” Procedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96, no. 7 (March 30, 1999): 3486.

37. Carol K. Winkler, In the Name of Terrorism: Presidents on Political Violence in the Post-World War II Era (State University of New York Press, 2006), 13335.

38. Jacob Appelbaum et al., “The Digital Arms Race: NSA Preps America for Future Battle,” Spiegel Online, January 17, 2015, sec. International, http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/new-snowden-docs-indicate-scope-of-nsa-preparations-for-cyber-battle-a-1013409.html

39. Gabriel Weimann, Terror on the Internet: The New Arena, the New Challenges (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2006), 148, 156.

40. Ronald Diebert, Interview at the Monk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto, April 17, 2014.

41. Jeffrey Kahn, “Postmortem: Iraq War Media Coverage Dazzled but It Also Obscured,” UC Berkeley News, March 18, 2004, http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/03/18_iraqmedia.shtml

42. Danny Schechter, “Independent Press Was a Target in Iraq,” Television Week, February 28, 2005.

43. David Barstow, “Behind TV Analysts, Pentagon’s Hidden Hand,” The New York Times, 2008.

44. Quoted from James Hay, “Extreme Makeover: Iraq Edition,” in Flow TV: Television in the Age of Media Convergence, eds. Michael Kackman et al. (New York: Routledge, 2010), 218. The Rapid Response Media Team’s White Paper, from which this quotation derives, can be found here: http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB219/iraq_media_01.pdf

45. See Chapter 4 of Donald Matheson and Stuart Allan, Digital War Reporting (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 2009). This pivot spawned later efforts like “Project Madison Valleywood” designed to counter the social media presence of ISIL.Cecilia Kang and Matt Apuzzo, “U.S. Asks Tech and Entertainment Industries Help in Fighting Terrorism,” The New York Times, February 24, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/25/technology/tech-and-media-firms-called-to-white-house-for-terrorism-meeting.html

46. Katherine Fung, “Record Number of Journalists Killed during Iraq War: Committee to Protect Journalists,” Huffington Post, March 19, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/19/iraq-war-killed-journalists_n_2907550.html; Howard Kurtz, “CNN’s Jordan Resigns over Iraq Remarks,” The Washington Post, February 12, 2005, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A17462-2005Feb11.html.

47. Lisa Parks, “Insecure Airwaves: US Bombings of Aljazeera,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 4, no. 2 (2007): 226–31.

48. Cora Currier, Glenn Greenwald, and Alan Fishman, “U.S. Government Designated Prominent Al Jazeera Journalist as ‘Member of Al Qaeda,’” The Intercept, May 8, 2015, https://firstlook.org/theintercept/2015/05/08/u-s-government-designated-prominent-al-jazeera-journalist-al-qaeda-member-put-watch-list/

49. Juan Cole, “Did Bush Plan to Bomb Al-Jazeera?,” Salon.com, November 30, 2005, http://www.salon.com/2005/11/30/al_jazeera_3/; Currier, Greenwald, and Fishman, “U.S. Government.”

50. “Rumsfeld: Al-Jazeera Is Causing Deaths,” Fox News, February 6, 2004, http://www.foxnews.com/story/2004/02/06/rumsfeld-al-jazeera-is-causing-deaths.html

51. Kate Zernike, “A Tea Party Patron Takes the Spotlight,” The International Herald Tribune, December 14, 2010.

52. Tom Brune, “King: Charge Wikileaks Founder,” Newsday, November 29, 2010.

53. Martha MacCallum, “Interview with Representative Peter King,” Fox News: Live Event, November 30, 2010.

54. Holly Ramer, “Santorum Calls WikiLeaks Founder a Terrorist,” Associated Press, November 30, 2010.

55. “Senator Mitch McConnell discusses Tax Cut Extensions, Unemployment Compensation Extensions, and Other Issues,” Meet the Press, December 5, 2010.

56. Chris Wallace, “Interview with Newt Gingrich,” Fox News Sunday, December 5, 2010.

57. Henry J. Reske and Kathleen Walter, “Oliver North: WikiLeaks Disclosures Are Terrorism,” Newsmax.com, December 9, 2010, http://www.newsmax.com/InsideCover/Oliver-North-WikiLeaks-terrorism/2010/12/09/id/379463

58. Jeffrey T. Kuhner, “Assassinate Assange; Web Provocateur Undermines War on Terror, Threatens American Lives,” The Washington Times, December 3, 2010, B1.

59. Kuhner, “Assassinate Assange.”

60. Stewart, “WikiLeaks Founder ‘May Have Blood on his Hands.’”

61. Hillary Rodham Clinton, “Remarks to the Press on the Release of Confidential Documents,” U.S. Department of State, November 29, 2010, http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2010/11/152078.htm

62. “Vice President Joe Biden Discusses Lame Duck Session Accomplishments, Afghanistan, Other Issues,” Meet the Press, December 19, 2010.

63. Stephen Kurczy, “Will WikiLeaks’ Julian Assange, Now Arrested, Take the ‘Nuclear’ Option?,” Christian Science Monitor, December 7, 2010, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/1207/Will-WikiLeaks-Julian-Assange-now-arrested-take-the-nuclear-option

64. Ashley Fantz, “Assange’s ‘Poison Pill’ File Impossible to Stop, Expert Says,” CNN.com, December 9, 2010, http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/12/08/wikileaks.poison.pill/

65. Mark Hosenball, “Spies Worry over Doomsday Cache Stashed by Ex-NSA Contractor Snowden,” Reuters, November 25, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/26/us-usa-security-doomsday-idUSBRE9AO0Y120131126

66. Andy Geller, “Bin Laden Mocks U.S. in Interview,” The New York Post, February 1, 2002, Lexis Nexis.

67. Aamer Madhani, “Cleric Al-Awlaki Dubbed ‘Bin Laden of the Internet,’” USA Today, September 30, 2011, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/2010-08-25-1A_Awlaki25_CV_N.htm

68. “Palin Slams Obama Over WikiLeaks Handling,” Agence France Presse, November 29, 2010.

69. Mary L. Dudziak, “Law, War, and the History of Time,” California Law Review 98, no. 5 (2010): 1669–701.

70. Matt Sledge, “Unhappy with U.S. Foreign Policy? Pentagon Says You Might Be a ‘High Threat,’” Huffington Post, August 7, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/07/insider-threat-training_n_3714333.html; Marisa Taylor and Jonathan S. Landay, “Obama’s Crackdown Views Leaks as Aiding Enemies of U.S.,” McClatchy, June 20, 2013, http://www.mcclatchydc.com/news/special-reports/insider-threats/article24750244.html

71. David Carr, “White House Uses Espionage Act to Pursue Leak Cases,” The New York Times, February 26, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/27/business/media/white-house-uses-espionage-act-to-pursue-leak-cases-media-equation.html

72. Humanitarian Law Project v. Reno, 4 (United States District Court for the Central District of California 1998).

73. Humanitarian Law Project v. Reno, 4 (1998).

74. Humanitarian Law Project v. Reno (1998). A Ninth Circuit appeal upheld this ruling. Humanitarian Law Project et al v. Reno (United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit 2000).

75. Humanitarian Law Project, et al v. John Ashcroft (United States District Court for the Central District of California 2004).

76. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 371 (Supreme Court of the United States 2010).

77. Humanitarian Law Project, et al v. Mukasey (United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit 2009).

78. David Cole, “The Lynne Stewart Trial,” The Nation, February 17, 2005, http://www.thenation.com/article/lynne-stewart-trial/

79. Matt Sledge, “Lynne Stewart Got 92 Extra Months In Prison For Saying This,” The Huffington Post, January 2, 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/01/02/lynne-stewart-resentencing_n_4532857.html

80. Franklin Lamb, “The Israel Lobby’s War on Al Manar TV,” Counterpunch, January 1, 2010, http://www.counterpunch.org/2010/01/01/the-israel-lobby-s-war-on-al-manar-tv/

81. Benjamin Weiser, “A Guilty Plea in Providing Satellite TV for Hezbollah,” The New York Times, December 24, 2008, sec. New York Region, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/24/nyregion/24plea.html

82. Murtaza Hussain and Glenn Greenwald, “Exclusive Interview: Sami Al-Arian, Professor Who Defeated Controversial Terrorism Charges, Is Deported from U.S.,” The Intercept, February 5, 2015, http://theintercept.com/2015/02/05/sami-al-arian-charged-terrorism-never-convicted-deported-today-u-s/

83. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 381 (Supreme Court of the United States 2010).

84. Brandenburg v. Ohio, 447 (n.d.).

85. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 382 (Supreme Court of the United States 2010).

86. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 382.

87. Ronald Walter Greene, “Rhetorical Capital: Communicative Labor, Money/Speech, and Neo-Liberal Governance,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 4, no. 3 (2007): 327–31.

88. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 394 (Supreme Court of the United States 2010).

89. Holder v. Humanitarian Law Project, 394.

90. Cole, “The Lynne Stewart Trial.”

91. Andy Grimm and Cynthia Dizikes, “FBI Raids Anti-War Activists’ Homes,” Tribunedigital-Chicagotribune, September 24, 2010, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2010-09-24/news/ct-met-fbi-terrorism-investigation-20100924_1_fbi-agents-anti-war-activists-federal-agents

92. Charles Davis, “The FBI’s Failed Two-Year Campaign Against a Group of Nonviolent Activists in the Midwest,” VICE, March 31, 2014, http://www.vice.com/read/how-the-fbi-goes-after-activists

93. Davis, “The FBI’s Failed Two-Year Campaign.”

94. Davis, “The FBI’s Failed Two-Year Campaign.”

95. Amna Akbar, “How Tarek Mehanna Went to Prison for a Thought Crime,” December 31, 2013, http://www.thenation.com/article/how-tarek-mehanna-went-prison-thought-crime/

96. David Cole, “39 Ways to Limit Free Speech,” New York Review of Books, April 19, 2012, http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2012/apr/19/39-ways-limit-free-speech/

97. Akbar, “How Tarek Mehanna Went to Prison for a Thought Crime.”

98. “Ethiopia: Journalism under Anti-Terrorism Law,” Al Jazeera English, accessed November 14, 2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/listeningpost/2013/03/2013311114625604670.html

99. “Egypt Sentences 3 Al-Jazeera Reporters to 3 Years in Prison,” Chicago Tribune, August 29, 2015, http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/ct-egypt-al-jazeera-reporters-prison-20150829-story.html

100. “Turkish Court Charges Two British Vice News Journalists for ‘Terror Offences’ - BBC News,” BBC News, August 31, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-34109186

101. Julian Borger, “NSA Files: Why the Guardian in London Destroyed Hard Drives of Leaked Files,” The Guardian, August 20, 2013, sec. US news, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/20/nsa-snowden-files-drives-destroyed-london

102. Ryan Devereaux, “UK Court: David Miranda Detention Legal Under Terrorism Law,” The Intercept, February 19, 2014, https://theintercept.com/2014/02/19/uk-court-david-miranda-detention-legal-terrorism-law/

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