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Abstract
Beatty C. Two become one: the integration of male and female labour markets in the English and Welsh Coalfields, Regional Studies. This paper explores the extent to which the labour markets for men and women are becoming integrated as a single entity. It does so in the specific context of the English and Welsh coalfields, where major job losses in the coal industry fell almost exclusively on men. Using data from 1981 to 2008, the paper presents ‘labour market accounts’ for the coalfields that reveal changing female labour force participation and employment, and it compares these trends with those among men in the same places. Evidence emerges of two relatively independent labour markets – male and female – operating in the 1980s in the same geographic space. However, over time a degree of integration appears to have occurred. As a result, women increasingly have to compete with men for the same jobs and a greater proportion of new job opportunities in the former coalfields are now going to men.
Beatty C. 合而为一：英格兰与威尔斯煤田的男性与女性劳动市场整合，区域研究。本文探讨男性与女性劳动市场整合成为单一整体的程度。本研究在英格兰与威尔斯的煤田之特定脉络中进行，其中几乎只有男性受到煤矿产业的失业冲击。本文运用 1981 年至 2008 年的数据，呈现煤田的“劳动市场记述”，揭露改变中的女性劳动力参与及就业，并将之与相同地点中的男性趋势相互比较。证据显示，在 1980 年代的相同地理空间中，男性与女性两种劳动市场相对独立运作。但某种程度的整合，似乎随着时间而发生。女性因此逐渐必须和男性竞争相同的工作，且在过去的煤田中产生的新工作机会，目前有更大的比例是属于男性的。
Beatty C. Deux en un: l'intégration des marchés de l'emploi féminin et masculin dans les bassins miniers anglais et gallois, Regional Studies. Cet article examine jusqu’à quel point les marchés de l'emploi masculin et féminin s'intègrent dans une seule unité. Cela est accompli dans le contexte spécifique des bassins miniers anglais et gallois, où d'importantes suppressions d'emplois dans l'industrie du charbon ont touché presque exclusivement les hommes. Employant des données de 1981 à 2008, l'article cherche à présenter des ‘comptes du marché de l'emploi’ relatifs aux bassins miniers qui laissent voir un taux d'activité et un taux d'emploi féminins en voie de changement, et compare ces tendances-là à celles des hommes aux mêmes endroits. Il s'avère qu'il existe deux marchés de l'emploi qui sont plus ou moins indépendants – l'un masculin, l'autre féminin – et qui fonctionnaient aux années 1980 dans le même espace géographique. Cependant, au fil du temps il apparaît un certain niveau d'intégration. Par conséquent, les femmes sont de plus en plus en concurrence avec les hommes pour les mêmes emplois, et une part plus importante des nouvelles possibilités d'emploi dans les anciens bassins miniers sont réservés aux hommes.
Beatty C. Zwei werden eins: die Integration der männlichen und weiblichen Arbeitsmärkte in den Kohlefeldern von England und Wales, Regional Studies. In diesem Beitrag wird untersucht, in welchem Ausmaß die Arbeitsmärkte für Männer und Frauen in eine einzelne Einheit integriert werden. Diese Untersuchung erfolgt im spezifischen Kontext der Kohlefelder von England und Wales, bei denen die größten Arbeitsplatzverluste in der Kohleindustrie fast ausschließlich Männer betrafen. Anhand von Daten aus dem Zeitraum von 1981 bis 2008 werden für die Kohlefelder ‘Arbeitsmarktbücher’ vorgestellt, die eine veränderliche weibliche Beteiligung an der Erwerbsbevölkerung und Beschäftigung verdeutlichen, und die Trends werden mit denen unter Männern an denselben Orten verglichen. Es ergeben sich Anzeichen für zwei relativ unabhängige Arbeitsmärkte – männlich und weiblich –, die in den Achtzigerjahren im selben geografischen Raum tätig sind. Allerdings scheint im Laufe der Zeit ein gewisses Maß von Integration stattgefunden zu haben. Frauen müssen daher zunehmend mit Männern um dieselben Arbeitsplätze konkurrieren, und ein größerer Anteil von neuen Stellenangeboten in den früheren Kohlefeldern geht jetzt an Männer.
Beatty C. Dos serán uno: la integración de los mercados laborales de hombres y mujeres en las cuencas mineras de Inglaterra y Gales, Regional Studies. En este artículo se analiza en qué medida se están integrando los mercados laborales para hombres y mujeres en una sola entidad. Aquí se examina el contexto específico de las cuencas mineras de Inglaterra y Gales, donde la pérdida de puestos de trabajo en la industria del carbón ha afectado casi exclusivamente a los hombres. A partir de datos de 1981 a 2008, se presentan las estadísticas del mercado laboral para las cuencas mineras que indican un cambio en la participación y el empleo de la fuerza laboral femenina, y se comparan estas tendencias con las de los hombres en los mismos lugares. Se observan indicios de dos mercados laborales relativamente independientes – para hombres y mujeres – que funcionan en los ochenta en el mismo espacio geográfico. Sin embargo, parece que con el tiempo ocurre un grado de integración. Como resultado, las mujeres tienen que competir cada vez más con los hombres por los mismos puestos de trabajo y un mayor porcentaje de nuevas oportunidades laborales en las antiguas cuencas mineras ahora son para los hombres.
Acknowledgements
The author would especially like to thank Steve Fothergill who worked on the previous coalfield studies, and who, along with Paul Lawless, provided valuable comments on numerous earlier drafts of this paper. Thanks also to Ryan Powell who was part of the team for the English Partnerships study.
Notes
1. Elements of the Census Special Workplace Statistics required for this analysis are not available for Scotland.
2. There are differences in coverage between the ABI and Census of Population Special Workplace Statistics workplace-based employment data which this analysis takes into account to allow trends in coalfield areas to be considered post-2001. ABI counts employees in an area (including double jobbing), but excludes the self-employed. The census data record the main employment of individuals working in an area and therefore exclude double jobbing, but include the self-employed. The 2008 ABI employee data were grossed by the ratio of employees recorded in the 2001 ABI relative to employment in each coalfield recorded in the 2001 Census to take account of self-employment and double jobbing. These ratios were calculated and applied separately for male and female employment for each individual coalfield to reflect different patterns of self-employment by sex and area. In addition, there is a discontinuity with 2008 ABI data and surveys prior to 2006. Local authority scaling factors available via the National On-line Manpower Information System (NOMIS) were applied to 2008 ABI data to take account of this discontinuity. For each coalfield an employee-weighted average scaling factor based on local authorities partially or fully covered by each coalfield was applied.
3. The LFS uses the International Labour Organisation (ILO) definition of unemployment, which counts those who are out of work, available to start work, and looking for work, whereas the claimant count only includes those claiming Jobseeker's Allowance. In recent years in the UK the LFS measure of unemployment has been significantly higher than the claimant count.
4. The inconsistency between the direct measurement of net commuting (from the census) and the methods deployed here for 1981–91 and 1991–2001 account for fewer than 3000 women in each of these periods. For 2001–08 net commuting cannot be measured directly in the absence of census data, necessitating its estimation as the residual in the accounts. These are the same methods as deployed by Beatty et al. (Citation2007).
5. Part-time is defined in both census and ABI data as 30 hours a week or fewer. The 1981 and 1991 data in are from Census Special Workplace Statistics on those in employment in the area, including self-employed. The 2001 and 2008 data are for employees in the area from the ABI. National residence-based data available from the 2001 Census indicate that whilst there is a slightly higher rate of part-time working amongst the self-employed than employees, the impact on the workforce taken as a whole is negligible.
6. The Index of Dissimilarity (ID) compares the distribution of men and women across industrial categories. It shows the proportion of men/women who would need to move between industrial categories in order to produce and identical distribution by sex. An ID of 0.34 in 2008 means 34% of men would need to change industrial categories to produce the same distribution by sector as women, down from 41% in 1981.