International citizenship and the International Federation of University Women before 1939

Abstract

This article explores discursive languages through which leading women in the International Federation of University Women (IFUW) articulated their understandings of world citizenship and looks at what Caroline Spurgeon, the first President of the IFUW, called the ‘organised training of women to be citizens of the world’. The central section focuses on how the IFUW dealt with aspirations of national minorities in relation to dominant IFUW understandings of borders, territories and frontiers. The final sections focus on notions of scientific internationalism as they played out in the IFUW’s campaign around the nationality of married women and circulated in the League of Nations. The postscript comments briefly on historical approaches to researching the complexities of the IFUW’s engagement in national, international and transnational arenas.

Keywords:

• citizenship
• transnational
• comparative
• university
• women

Notes

¹‘What University Women do in Holland and the Colonies’, IFUW, Report of the Fourth Conference, Amsterdam, July 28 to August 2 1926, 62. Corbett Ashby was the president of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance (IWSA) and an active member of the IFUW. She was a member of the ad hoc Committee on Moral Disarmament of the League of Nations, see: League of Nations Intellectual Co-operation Organisation, ‘Moral Disarmament and Intellectual Co-operation’, Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (April 1932), 13; Arnold Whittick, Woman into Citizen (London: Athenaeum, 1979).

²Karen Offen, European Feminisms 1700–1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 348; Leila Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 213, 215; Johanna Alberti, Beyond Suffrage. Feminists in War and Peace, 1914–28 (London: Macmillan, 1989), 194ff; Carole Miller, ‘“Geneva – the Key to Equality”: Inter-war Feminists and the League of Nations’, Women’s History Review 3, no.2 (1994): 219–45.

³John H. Schwarz, ‘Spurgeon, Caroline Frances Eleanor (1869–1942)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); online edn, October 2009, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/48509 (accessed January 3, 2011).

⁴‘Address by Professor Caroline Spurgeon’, IFUW, Report of the First Conference, 1920, 15.

⁵IFUW, Report of the First Conference, July 1920, 3, 10. Delegates at the first conference in London were from America, France, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Czecho-Slovakia, India, Canada, Australia, South Africa; see also Marie Sandell, “‘Truly International?” The International Federation of University Women’s Quest for Expansion in the Interwar Period’, History of Education Researcher 82 (2008): 74–83, here 75.

⁶‘Conference on After-War Problems in the Higher Education of Women in Great Britain and the United States’, typescript; ‘Visit of the British Educational Mission to the United States October–December, 1918’, both in Gildersleeve Collection, Columbia University, box 44; Martha Hanna ‘French Women and American Men: Foreign Students at the University of Paris, 1915–1925’, French Historical Studies 22, no. 1: 87–112; Jehnie I. Reis, ‘Cultural Internationalism at the Cité Universitaire: International Education between the First and Second World Wars’, History of Education 39, no. 2 (2010): 144–73.

⁷Theodore Bosanquet in ‘The Aims and Record of the International Federation, IFUW’, Report of Conference, Geneva, 1929, 51.

⁸Heather Nash, By Degrees: A History of the Australian Federation of University Women, 1922–85 (Australian Federation of University Women, 1985), 1.

⁹1919, Great Britain, USA; 1920, Canada, France, Spain; 1921, Holland, India, Norway, Sweden; 1922, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Czecho-Slovakia, Denmark, Finland, Italy, New Zealand; 1923, South Africa; 1924, Ireland, Switzerland; 1925 Bulgaria, Luxembourg, Romania; 1926, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Poland; 1927, Mexico; 1928, Iceland, Jugo-Slavia, Latvia; 1929, Lithuania, Portugal; 1930, Greece; 1931, Brazil, Egypt; 1932, Palestine; 1938, Argentina.

¹⁰‘Opening of the Conference’, IFUW, Report of the Seventh Conference, Cracow, August 22 to September 1 1936, 23; see also ‘Withdrawal of Italian and German Federations’, ibid., 72.

¹¹See Joyce Goodman, ‘Cosmopolitan women educators, 1920–1939: inside/outside activism and abjection’, Paedagogica Historica 46, nos 1–2 (2010): 69–83.

¹²IFUW, Standing Committee for the Exchange of Information Concerning Secondary Education’, IFUW, Fifth Conference – Geneva, 1929, 122–3.

¹³Conferences were largely conducted in English, but also in French and German, with biennial or triennial conference proceedings, including accounts of Council and standing committee meetings, largely in English, with some German and French contributions.

¹⁴Susan Cohen, ‘Crossing Borders: Academic Refugee Women, Education and the British Federation of University Women During the Nazi Era’, History of Education 39, no. 2 (2010): 175–82.

¹⁵Pierre Bovet of the IBE spoke at the IFUW 1926 conference; Pierre Bovet, ‘An International Language as an Educational Instrument’, IFUW, Report of the Fourth Conference, Amsterdam, July 28 to August 2, 1926, 102–4.

¹⁶The IFUW was represented on the Joint Standing Committee of Women’s International Organisations, the Women’s Consultative Committee on Nationality, the Liaison Committee of the Women’s International Organisations and the Peace and Disarmament Committee; see Rupp, Worlds of Women, 38–40.

²⁰Marion Talbot and Lois Kimball Mathews Rosenberry, The History of the American Association of University Women [AAUW], 1881–1931 (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1931), 279. Burstall was a catalyst in the foundation of the British Federation of University Women, which in turn was a major player in the foundation of the IFUW. Although Burstall became a major figure in shaping educational policy in respect of girls’ education in Africa through her work with J.H. Oldham’s Colonial Advisory Committee on Education in the Colonies, she does not figure in any substantial way in the records of the IFUW. For her activity in the Colonial Advisory Committee on Education see Clive Whitehead, Colonial Educators. The British Indian and Colonial Education Service, 1858–1983 (London: IB Taurus, 2003), 244.

¹⁷Dean Gildersleeve in ‘The Aims and Record of the International Federation’, IFUW, Report of Fifth Conference, Geneva, August 7 to August 14 1929, 61.

¹⁸Antoinette Burton, Dwelling in the Archive: Women Writing House, Home, and History in Late Colonial India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003); Caroline Steedman, Dust (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002).

¹⁹For entangled history see: Julie Carlier, ‘Forgotten Transnational Connections and National Contexts: an “Entangled History” of the Political Transfers that Shaped Belgian Feminism, 1890–1914’, Women’s History Review 19, no. 4 (2010): 503–22.

²¹Mary Kinnear, Margaret McWilliams: An Interwar Feminist (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1991), 74. Kinnear questions McWilliams’s account on the basis of her archival research.

²²Talbot and Rosenberry, The History of the AAUW, 280.

²⁵Bosanquet, in ‘The Aims and Record of the International Federation’, Report of the Conference, Geneva, 1929, 52.

²³Offen, European Feminisms, 369–70, 373–5.

²⁴Katalin Fabian, ‘Fashioning Women’s Citizenship: Contemporary Paradoxes’, Aspasia 3 (2009): 223–32.

²⁷‘Address by Professor Caroline Spurgeon’, IFUW, Report of the First Conference, 1920, 15.

²⁶Sandell, ‘Truly International?’, 75.

²⁸Virginia Gildersleeve, IFUW, Report of the Third Conference, Christiania, July 1924, 25.

³³Gildersleeve, in ‘The Aims and Record of the International Federation’, IFUW, Report of Conference Geneva, 1929, 61.

²⁹Nicholas Murray Butler, The International Mind: An Argument for the Juridical Settlements of International Disputes (New York: Shares Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 102.

³⁰Virginia Gildersleeve, ‘The Creation of the International Mind’, typescript, Gildersleeve Collection, Columbia University, box 62.

³¹See, for example, resonances with the ideas of William I. Thomas, the Chicago sociologist, who claimed that enmity was a ‘primitive reflex’ and that race prejudice would gradually diminish with ‘increased intercommunication, common interests and standards, similar education, equal access to knowledge, mental and social parity’, quoted in Glenda Sluga, The Nation, Psychology and International Politics, 1870–1919 (Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2006), 67.

³²Ibid., 89.

³⁹Fru Martha Larsen-Jahn, ‘The International Mind in Schools’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 88. In the widely read text, The Great Illusion, published in 1909, Norman Angell differentiated between good patriotism (normal, love-based patriotism) and bad patriotism (hatred of another nation which he declared to be an abnormal or pathological form of patriotism), see Sluga, The Nation, Psychology and International Politics, 83. Laarsen-Jahn critiqued the way in which children were taught to love their own country at the expense of others.

³⁴Gildersleeve, ‘The International Mind’.

³⁵Virginia Gildersleeve, ‘Prefaratory Note to the Members of the IUW’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 4.

³⁶Margery Corbett Ashby, ‘The Value of a University Training for a Political Career’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 72.

³⁷Dr Erna Patzelt, in ‘Public Meetings and Receptions’, IFUW, Report of the Twelfth Council Meeting Madrid, September, 1928, 25.

³⁸Martha Larsen Jahn was director of Christiania’s Public Health Association from 1915 and from 1925, a committee member of the Norwegian Women Public Health Association (NKS). She was also a member of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILP), http://www.snl.no/.nbl_biografi/Martha_Larsen_Jahn/utdypning (accessed January 3, 2011).

⁴⁰Sluga, The Nation, Psychology and International Politics, 39–42. See, for example, Alfred Zimmern, ‘The Development of the International Mind’, in The Problems of Peace. Lectures Delivered at the Geneva Institute of International Relations (Geneva: Institute of International Relations, 1927), 1–17.

⁴⁵‘President’s Report of the Council Meeting’, IFUW, Report of Council Meeting Brussels, July 1925, 7.

⁴¹Virginia Gildersleeve, ‘University Women of 1937’, IFUW, Report of the Twenty-Second Council Meeting, Paris, July, 1937, 6–7.

⁴²Sandell, ‘Truly international?’, 7.

⁴³IFUW, ‘Notes on the Constitution and Bye Laws’, IFUW, Report of the First Conference, 1920, 76.

⁴⁴‘Address by Professor Caroline Spurgeon’, IFUW, Report of the First Conference, 1920, 10.

⁴⁹Yuval-Davis, ‘Women, Citizenship and Difference’, Feminist Review 57 (1997): 4–27, here 19.

⁴⁶‘Third Members Meeting’, IFUW, Report of the Sixth Conference, Edinburgh, July 27 to August 4 1932, 78.

⁴⁷Ruth Lister discusses the challenge of diversity and difference for the ‘false universalism’ of citizenship and the category ‘woman’ and she includes a discussion of Yuval-Davis’s concept of ‘transversal dialogue’, see Ruth Lister, ‘Citizenship: Towards a Feminist Synthesis’, Feminist Review 57 (1997): 28–48, here 39–42.

⁴⁸Pnina Webner and Nira Yual Davis, ‘Women and the New Discourse of Citizenship’, in Women, Citizenship and Difference, ed. Nira Yuval–Davis and Pnina Weber (London: Zubaan, 2005), 9.

⁵³Gildersleeve, ‘University Women of 1937’, IFUW, Council Meeting Paris, 1937, 6–7.

⁵⁰‘Opening of the Conference’, IFUW, Report of the Conference, Cracow, 1936, 23; ‘Withdrawal of Italian and German Federations’, ibid., 72.

⁵¹IFUW,’Notes on the Constitution’, IFUW, Report of the First Conference 1920, 77.

⁵²Gildersleeve, ‘University Women of 1937’, IFUW, Council Meeting Paris, 1937, 6–7; Susan Cohen, ‘Crossing Borders’, 175–82.

⁵⁴Gildersleeve, ‘The International Mind’.

⁵⁵‘Address by Professor Caroline Spurgeon’, IFUW, Report of the First Conference, 1920, 11.

⁵⁶Dr Ellen Gleditsch, in ‘Public Meetings and Receptions’, IFUW, Council Meeting Madrid, 1928, 24.

⁵⁷Winifred Cullis, ‘The Special Work of the International Federation’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 93.

⁵⁸Dr Ellen Gleditsch, in ‘Opening Meeting’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Geneva, 1929, 35.

⁵⁹Virginia Gildersleeve, IFUW, Report of Conference, Amsterdam, 1926, 29.

⁶⁰Gleditsch, in ‘Opening Meeting, IFUW, Report of Conference, Geneva, 1929, 39.

⁶¹This draws heavily on Georgeta Nazarska, ‘Karamichailova, Elissaveta Ivanova (1897–1968)’, in A Biographical Dictionary of Women’s Movements and Feminisms. Central, Eastern and South Eastern Europe, 19^th and 20^th Centuries, ed. Francisca de Haan, Krassimira Daskalova and Anna Loutfi (Budapest: Central European Press, 2006), 222–4.

⁶²Winifred Cullis, ‘The Organisation of Interchange’, IFUW, Report of the Second Conference, July 1922, 58.

⁶³Ida Smedley MacLean, ‘A Foundation for International Fellowships’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 35.

⁶⁴Cullis, ‘The Special Work of the International Federation’, 93.

⁶⁵Miss Ellis-Fermor, comment in ‘Foundation for International Fellowships’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 63–4.

⁶⁶Susan Zimmerman, ‘The Challenge of Multinational Empire for the International Women’s Movement: the Habsburg Monarchy and the Development of Feminist Inter/National Politics’, Journal of Women’s History 17, no. 2 (2005): 87–117, here 87, 89.

⁶⁷IFUW, ‘Notes on the Constitution’, IFUW, Report of the First Conference, 1920, 77.

⁶⁸Georgeta Nazarska, ‘The Bulgarian Association of University Women, 1924–1950’, Aspasia 1 (2007): 153–75, here 159.

⁶⁹Zimmerman, ‘The Challenge of Multinational Empire’, 87.

⁷⁰‘Committee to Consider Conditions of Affiliation and Co-operation’, IFUW, Council Meeting Prague, 1930, 46–47.

⁷¹Reina Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity and Representation (New York: Routledge, 1995).

⁷²‘Indian Federation’, IFUW, Report of the Christiania Conference 1992–23’, 36; For Sorabji’s contradictory location to empire see: Suparna Gooptu, Cornelia Sorabji: India’s Pioneer Woman Lawyer (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006), 2–3.

⁷³Anon, ‘Women Graduates Union 1915–1965’ (no publisher, n.d.), 30.

⁷⁹‘President’s Report’, IFUW, Council Meeting Brussels, 1925, 4, 5.

⁷⁴Dennis P. Hupchick and Harold E. Cox, The Palgrave Concise Historical Atlas of Eastern Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), Map 42.

⁷⁵In Poland, for example, a strong Ukrainian nationalist movement led by the urban intelligentsia had developed by the First World War. In the 1920s there was wide-ranging conflict among Poles, Russians and Ukrainians. The treaty of Riga (signed in 1921) incorporated a large slice of western Ukraine into Poland. In 1921 Ukrainians represented 14% of the population of Poland, see: Hupchick &.Cox, Atlas of Eastern Europe, 43. By the 1930s, Ukrainian schools had been replaced with nominally bilingual but predominantly Polish ones, the activities of Ukrainian cultural organisations were restricted, the existing chairs at Lviv University were abolished, and Ukrainian Orthodox churches were closed down or pressed to use Polish liturgical texts; see: Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed. Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 98, 102.

⁷⁶‘Seventh Council Meeting’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 96; see also idem, 27.

⁷⁷‘President’s Report’, IFUW, Council Meeting Brussels, 1925, 4, 5.

⁷⁸Westerdijk was a the first female professor at the University of Utrecht. From 1918 to 1932 she was president of the Dutch Federation of University Women and from 1932–1937 was president of the IFUW, http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn2/westerdijk (accessed January 3, 2011).

⁸⁰Ibid.

⁸¹‘Committee to Consider Conditions of Affiliation and Co-operation’, IFUW, Council Meeting, Prague, 1930, 47. The Soviet Union elicited interest from some women of the IFUW. Germaine Hannevaart, who chaired the IFUW Secondary Education Committee, visited the Soviet Union in 1935. See Germaine Hannevart, Souvenirs d’URSS, 1935–1951, CEGES Soma Archive, Brussels.

⁸²Zimmerman, ‘The Challenge of Multinational Empire’, 104.

⁸³See Peter Kallaway, ‘Education, Health and Social Welfare in the Late Colonial Context: the International Missionary Council and Educational Transition in the Interwar Years with Specific Reference to Colonial Africa’, History of Education 38, no. 2 (2009): 217–46; Kevin Brehony, ‘A New Education for a New Era: the Contribution of the Conferences of the New Education Fellowship to the Disciplinary Field of Education, 1921–1938’, Paedagogica Historica 40, nos 5&6 (2004): 733–55.

⁸⁴‘Report on the Work of the Women’s Consultative Committee on Nationality Created by the January 1931 Council of the League of Nations’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Edinburgh, 1932, 131.

⁸⁵Glenda Sluga, ‘Female and National Self-Determination. A Gender Re-Reading of “The Apogee of Nationalism”’, Nations and Nationalisms 6, no. 4 (2000): 495–521, here 496, 511–12. Sluga notes that even the American Cable Law introduced in 1922 to improve the condition of stateless women was limited in its recognition of women’s equal right to nationality.

⁸⁶Rupp, Worlds of Women, 146–50.

⁸⁷Sybil Oldfield, ‘Macmillan (Jessie) Chrystal (1872–1937)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/38526 (accessed November 19, 2010). Macmillan was one of the original proposers for the woman’s peace conference held in The Hague in 1915, an envoy to European governments that followed, a delegate to the Congress of Women in Zurich which became the International League for Peace and Freedom, and a founder of the Open Door Council. She gave evidence to the Select Committee in the UK in 1922 that investigated the right of women to retain their own nationality on marriage to a foreigner.

⁸⁸‘The Fourteenth Council Meeting’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Geneva, 1929, 150.

⁸⁹‘Nationality of Married Women’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Amsterdam, 1926, 161–2.

⁹⁰‘Opening of the Conference’, IFUW, Report of the Conference, Cracow, 1936, 23.

⁹¹‘Personal Notes’, IFUW, Council Meeting Prague, 1930, 99.

⁹²‘Nationality of Married Women, Report Prepared by the Chairman of the Nationality Committee of the IFUW for Submission in the First Codification of the League of Nations and Presented to the Fifth Conference of the IFUW at Geneva on August 13, 1929 with a Preparatory Note Embodying the Decisions of the Conference’, Gildersleeve Collection, Columbia University, box 43.

⁹³‘Committee on the Nationality of Married Women’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Geneva, 1929, 133.

⁹⁵Ibid., 134.

⁹⁴Switzerland’s first women lawyer and president of the Swiss Association of University Women from 1924.

⁹⁶‘Nationality of Married Women’, IFUW, Council Meeting Prague, 1930, 38. See for example, Bulgarian Federation, idem, 66; Dutch Federation, idem, 71; Norwegian Federation, idem, 93; Romanian Federation, idem, 7; Yugoslav Federation, idem, 88.

⁹⁷Hazel Fox, ‘Williams, Ivy (1877–1966)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); online edn, October 2006, http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/36924 (accessed January 1, 2011).

⁹⁸‘British Federation’, IFUW, Council Meeting Prague, 1930, 61–2.

⁹⁹‘The Fourteenth Council Meeting’, IFUW, Report of the Conference, Geneva, 1929, 151.

¹⁰⁰‘British Federation’, IFUW, Council Meeting Prague, 1930, 62.

¹⁰¹Renson was a founder and president of the Belgian Federation of University Women created in 1921, a member of IWSA, and the Open Door Council and International Open Door Council and active in the Belgian movement for women’s suffrage. With the French lawyer, Marcelle Kraemer-Bach, she presented a report ‘Le régime matrimonial des époux dont la nationalité est différent’ to the International Federation of Women Judges and Lawyers at their conferences in Napes in 1934 and Vienna in 1936. Renson, Marcelle (1894–1988) in Dictionnaire des Femmes Belges XiX^e et XX^e Siècles, ed. Éliane Gubin, Catherine Jacques, Valérie Piette et Jean Puissant (Bruxelles: Racine, 2006), 479–81.

¹⁰²‘Nationality of Married Women’, British Federation of University Women, News Sheet 2 (June 1930), 8; ‘Nationality of Married Women’, IFUW, Council Meeting, Prague, 1930, 38; for Lüders see: Ann Taylor Allen, Women in Twentieth Century Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2008), 16 and Nancy R. Reagin, A German Women’s Movement: Class and Gender in Hanover, 1880–1933 (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 193–6.

¹⁰³‘Report on the Work of the Women’s Consultative Committee on Nationality’, IFUW, Report of Sixth Conference, Edinburgh, 1932, 131.

¹⁰⁴Professor Kristine Bonnevie in ‘Opening Meeting’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Christiania, 1924, 18–19.

¹⁰⁵League of Nations, Intellectual Cooperation in 1933 (Paris; IIC, 1934), 3–5.

¹⁰⁶‘President’s Report’, IFUW, Council Meeting Brussels, 1925, 7.

¹⁰⁷Frank Trentmann, ‘After the Nation-State: Citizenship, Empire and Global Co-ordination in the New Internationalism, 1914–30’, in Beyond Sovereignty. Britain, Empire and Transnationalism c1880–1950, ed.Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine and Frank Trentmann (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007), 34–53.

¹⁰⁸Henri Bonnet, ‘Recent Developments in International Intellectual Co-operation’, League of Nations, Intellectual Cooperation Organisation, Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (April 1932): 5.

¹⁰⁹This stance overlooked questions of power and national self-interest. Jan-Stefan Fritz, ‘Internationalism and the Promise of Science’, in Imperialism and Internationalism in the Discipline of International Relations, ed. David Long and Brian C.Schmidt (New York: SUNY Press, 2005), 141–58, here 142–4.

¹¹⁰The term ‘so-called independent experts’ is from Clavin and Wessels, who argue in the context of the economic and financial organisation of the League that experts mirrored the membership of nation-states with permanent seats on the Council. See Patricia Clavin and Jes-Wilhelm Wessels, ‘Transnationalism and the League of Nations: Understanding the Work of Its Economic and Financial Organisation’, Contemporary European History 14, no. 4 (2005): 465–92, here 472.

¹¹¹Bosanquet in ‘The Aims and Record of the International Federation’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Geneva, 1929, 54.

¹¹²Jean-Jacques Renoliet, L’Unesco oubliée, la Société des Nations et la coopération intellectuelle, 1919–1946 (Paris: Sorbonne, 2000), 184–5.

¹¹³‘Report of the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation’, IFUW, Report of Conference, Amsterdam, 1926, 97.

¹¹⁴Bulletin de l’Association des Françaises Diplomées des Universités, April 1933. For discussion of the women members of the International Committee of Intellectual Cooperation, their networks and links with the IFUW, see Joyce Goodman, ‘Women and International Intellectual Co-operation’, unpublished paper, Congress of Historical Sciences, Amsterdam, 2010.

¹¹⁵League of Nations, National Committees on Intellectual Co-operation (Geneva: League of Nations, 1937).

¹¹⁶Rupp, ‘Worlds of Women’, 37.

¹¹⁷Eckhardt Fuchs, ‘The Creation of New International Networks in Education: The League of Nations and Educational Organisations in the 1920s’, Paedagogica Historica 43, no. 2 (2007): 199–209, here 207.

¹¹⁸Dr Erna Patzelt in ‘Public Meetings and Receptions’, IFUW, Council Meeting, Madrid, 1928, 5.

¹¹⁹‘Irish Federation’, IFUW, Council Meeting Prague, 1930, 82.

¹²⁰Barbara Metzger, ‘Towards an International Human Rights Regime during the Inter-War Years: The League of Nations’ Combat of Traffic in Women and Children’, in Beyond Sovereignty, 54, 62 (see note 100).

¹²¹Angela Woollacott, ‘Inventing Commonwealth and Pan-Pacific Feminisms: Australian Women’s Internationalist Activism in the 1920s–30s’, in Globalising Feminisms, 1789–1945, ed. Karen Offen (London: Routledge, 2009), 217–32.

¹²²Glenda Sluga, ‘The Nation and the Comparative Imagination’, in Comparison and History. Europe in Cross-National Comparison, ed. Deborah Cohen and Maura O’Connor (London: Routledge, 2004), 103–14.

¹²³Patricia Clavin, ‘Defining Transnationalism’, Contemporary European History 14, no. 4 (2005): 421–39.

¹²⁴Carlier, ‘Forgotten Transnational Connections and National Contexts’, 503–22.

¹²⁵Ann Taylor Allen, ‘Lost in Translation? Women’s History in Transnational and Comparative Perspective’, in Comparative Women’s History. New Approaches, ed. Anna Cova (New York: Social Science Monographs/Columbia University Press), 97.

¹²⁶Glenda Sluga, ‘The Nation and the Comparative Imagination’, in Comparison and History, 113 (see note 115).

¹²⁷Susan Pedersen, ‘Comparative History and Women’s History: Explaining Convergence and Divergence’, in idem, 142 (see note 115).