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Abstract
In 1924 the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace published a volume investigating the teaching of school history in former belligerent states in Europe. The project sought to reconcile former enemies through mutual understanding and educational exchange and reflected a widely held belief that although the military conflict had finished, its ideas still resounded and served to perpetuate antagonism. The CEIP project, conceived in the internationalist spirit, was itself derailed by nationalist enmity, a consequence of the Franco-Belgian occupation of the Ruhr in January 1923, demonstrating the limits of cultural reconciliation in the early 1920s, and the resultant volume showed that belligerent views of recent history were still being taught to schoolchildren in France and Germany in the early 1920s.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Jules Prudhommeaux, ed., Enquête sur les livres scolaire d’après guerre (Paris: Conciliation Internationale, 1924).
2 William Mulligan, The Great War for Peace (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 356–9.
3 Wolfgang J. Mommsen, ‘German Artists, Writers, and Intellectuals, and the Meaning of War 1914–1918’, in State, Society and Mobilization in Europe during the First World War, ed. John Horne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 21–38, Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 134–35, Fritz K. Ringer, The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1890–1933 (London: Wesleyan University Press, 1969), 180–90, Alan Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction: Culture and Mass Killing in Europe during the First World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 159–64, John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities 1914: A History of Denial (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 280–282, Martha Hanna, The Mobilization of Intellect: French Scholars and Writers during the Great War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 78–85, and Jörg Nagler, ‘From Culture to Kultur. Changing American Perceptions of Imperial Germany, 1870–1914’, in Transatlantic Images and Perceptions: Germany and America Since 1776, ed. David E. Barclay and Elisabeth Glaser-Schmidt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 131–54.
4 John Horne, ‘Beyond Cultures of Victory and Cultures of Defeat? Inter-War Veterans’ Internationalism’, in The Great War and Veterans’ Internationalism, ed. J.-P. Newman and J. Eichenberg (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 207–22.
5 Newman and Eichenberg, ‘The Great War and Veterans’ Internationalism’, in Newman and Eichenberg eds., The Great War and Veterans’ Internationalism, 11–12.
6 Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat: on National Trauma, Mourning and Recovery (London: Granta, 2004), 203–7.
7 Zara Steiner, The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933 (Oxford, 2005), 387–456; Patrick O. Cohrs, The Unfinished Peace after World War I: America, Britain, and the Stabilisation of Europe, 1919–1932 (Cambridge, 2006), 116; Sally Marks, The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe, 1918–1933 (Basingstoke, 2003), 82; Mulligan, The Great War for Peace, 339–40.
8 Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau and Annette Becker, ‘Violence et consentement: la “culture de guerre” du première conflit mondial’, in Pour une histoire culturelle, ed. Jean-Pierre Rioux and Jean-François Sirinielli (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1997), 252.
9 John Horne, ‘Demobilizing the Mind: France and the Legacy of the Great War, 1919–1939’, in French History and Civilization: Papers from the George Rudé Seminar, ed. Vesna Drapac and André Lambelet, Vol. 2 (2009), 107, http://www.h-france.net/rude/rude%20volume%20ii/Horne%20Final%20Version.pdf (accessed 5 May 2015).
10 Mona Siegel, The Moral Disarmament of France: Education, Pacifism and Patriotism, 1914–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Richard Overy, The Morbid Age: Britain and the Crisis of Civilisation, 1919–1939 (London, 2010); Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat. Schivelbusch’s work is comparative but only deals with the German case when examining the end of the First World War.
11 Jay Winter and Antoine Prost, René Cassin and Human Rights: From the Great War to the Universal Declaration (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Newman and Eichenberg, eds., The Great War and Veterans’ Internationalism; Daniel Laqua, ed., Internationalism Reconfigured: Transnational Ideas and Movements Between the World Wars (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011); Bruno Cabanes, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism, 1918–1924 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Patricia Clavin, Securing the World Economy: The Reinvention of the League of Nations, 1920–1946 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Katharina Rietzler, ‘The War as History: Writing the Economic and Social History of the First World War’, Diplomatic History 38, no. 4 (2014): 826–39; Daniel Gorman, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
12 Henri Lichtenberger, Relations between France and Germany (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), 131–2.
13 Konrad Jarausch and Thomas Lindenberger, ‘Contours of a Critical History of Contemporary Europe: A Transnational Agenda’, in idem, Conflicted Memories: Europeanizing Contemporary Histories (Oxford: Berghahn, 2007), 5.
14 Alain Chatriot, ‘Comprendre la guerre. L’histoire économique et sociale de la guerre mondiale. Les séries de la Dotation Carnegie pour la Paix internationale’, in Histoire Culturelle de la Grande Guerre, ed. Jean-Jacques Becker (Paris: A. Colin, 2005), 33–44.
15 Jules Prudhommeaux, ed., Le Centre Européen de la Dotation Carnegie pour la paix international 1911–1921 (Paris: Conciliation Internationale, 1921), 29.
16 Geoffrey Best, ‘Restraints on War by Land Before 1945’, in Restraints on War: Studies in the Limitation of Armed Conflict, ed. Michael Howard (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 17–37; Sandi Cooper, Patriotic Pacifism: Waging War on War in Europe, 1815–1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 91–114; Mark Mazower, Governing the World: the History of an Idea (London: Allen Lane, 2012), 65–93.
17 Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Yearbook for 1915 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1915), ix–xvii.
18 Mulligan, The Great War for Peace, 35–6.
19 Year Book for 1915, 18.
20 Ibid., 64.
21 Paul d’Estournelles de Constant to Nicholas Murray Butler, November 26, 1918, CEIP, Letter 438, Box 135, Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library (hereafter RBML).
22 Michael Rosenthal, Nicholas Miraculous: The Amazing Career of the Redoubtable Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler (New York: Farrar, Strauss, & Giroux, 2006), 243.
23 Letter of Jules Prudhommeaux to collaborators, March 15, 1922, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
24 Ibid.
25 Jules Prudhommeaux, ‘Premières conclusions et suggestions’, c.1924, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
26 Mona Siegel, The Moral Disarmament of France: Education, Pacifism and Patriotism, 1914–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 10–11, Antoine Prost, ‘The Contribution of the Republican Primary School to French National Identity’, in Republican Identities in War and Peace: Representations of France in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Oxford: Berg, 2002), 73–92.
27 Siegel, The Moral Disarmament of France, 25.
28 Ibid., 32.
29 Ibid., 37.
30 Enquête sur les livres scolaire, 155.
31 Antoine Prost, Les Anciens Combattants et la société francaise 1914–1939, Vol 3: Mentalités et ideologies (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1977), 77–9.
32 Antoine Prost, In the Wake of War: Les anciens combattants and French Society (Providence: Berg, 1991), 59–60.
33 Mona Siegel, ‘“History Is the Opposite of Forgetting”: The Limits of Memory and the Lessons of History in Interwar France’, Journal of Modern History 74, no. 4 (January 2002): 784.
34 Newman and Eichenberg, ‘The Great War and Veterans’ Internationalism’, 4–5.
35 Prost, In the Wake of War, 61.
36 Siegel, ‘History is the Opposite of Forgetting’, 789.
37 Ibid., 770.
38 Prudhommeaux, ‘Premières conclusions et suggestions’, c.1924, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
39 Martin Ceadel, Pacifism in Britain 1914–1945: The Defining of a Faith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 62–83.
40 Board of Education, Educational Pamphlets, No. 37: The Teaching of History (London: Board of Education, 1923), 17, 57.
41 Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat, 245–6.
42 Paul Bookbinder, Weimar Germany: The Republic of the Reasonable (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), 157, Hans Joachim Hahn, Education and Society in Germany (Oxford: Berg, 1998), 55–6.
43 Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, 6–19.
44 Stéphan Audoin-Rouzeau and Annette Becker, 14–18 Understanding the Great War (London: Profile, 2002), 146.
45 Nicholas Murray Butler to Henry S. Pritchett, October 28, 1921, III.A, Box 72, Folder 9, Columbia RBML.
46 James Shotwell, ‘The Social History of the War: Preliminary Considerations’, Columbia University Quarterly XXI (1919): 284.
47 Ibid., 291.
48 D’Estournelles de Constant, introduction to Relations between France and Germany, ix–xii.
49 Lichtenberger to Nicholas Murray Butler, October 28, 1924, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 5, Folder 3, Columbia RBML.
50 Karl Dietrich Erdmann, Towards a Global Community of Historians: The International Historical Congresses and the International Committee of Historical Sciences 1898–2000, edited by Jurgen Kocka and Wolfgang J. Mommsen and translated by Alan Nothnagle (New York: Berghahn, 2005), 72–81.
51 Fifth Meeting of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, Thursday, August 3, 1922, in The National Archives (TNA), ED/25/34, 19–21.
52 A.G. Cock, ‘Chauvinism and Internationalism in Science: The International Research Council. 1919–1926’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 37, no. 2 (March 1983): 249.
53 ‘Enquete sur les livres scolaires’, memorandum of proposed contributors, c.1922, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Folder 6, Columbia RBML.
54 Prudhommeaux, Enquête sur les livres scolaires, 40.
55 Ibid., 41.
56 Siegel, The Moral Disarmament of France, 51.
57 Excerpt from Mme Dés, Jean et Lucie, in Prudhommeaux, Enquête sur les livres scolaires, 43.
58 Ibid., 52.
59 Ibid., 56–62.
60 Ibid., 66.
61 Ibid.,104.
62 Ibid,.128.
63 Ibid.,134.
64 Winter and Prost, René Cassin and Human Rights.
65 Clementine Matthews, ‘L’enseignement de l’histoire et la littérature scolaire d’après-guerre en Grande Bretagne’, in Prudhommeaux, ed., Enquête sur les livres scolaires, 331.
66 Ibid., 340–1.
67 Enid Whitham to Clementine Matthews, May 6, 1922, CEIP, Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
68 M.J. Rendall to Clementine Matthews, May 3, 1922. CEIP, Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
69 W.W. Vaughan to Clementine Matthews, April 27, 1922. CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
70 Unsigned on Cheltenham College headed paper to Clementine Matthews, April 22, 1922. CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
71 E.P. Story to Clementine Matthews, May 17, 1922, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
72 London County Council Education Committee meeting of November 25, 1920. CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
73 Gilbert Murray, ‘Bias in History Teaching’, Times Educational Supplement, Saturday, May 28, 1921, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
74 Frederick J. Gould, Times Educational Supplement, Saturday, May 28, 1921, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, Columbia RBML.
75 Matthews, ‘L’enseignement de l’histoire’, 351.
76 Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World Without War: The Peace Movement and German Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 126; Norman Ingram, The Politics of Dissent: Pacifism in France, 1919–1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 45.
77 List of correspondents, CEIP Centre Européen, Box 20, and Prudhommeaux, Enquete sur les livres scolaires, 155–282. Authorship for the three sections on Germany was attributed to Pruhommeaux, H. Simondet (College Stanislas) and Edouard Duméril (Lycée de Nantes).
78 Prudhommeaux, Enquete sur les livres scolaires, 17.
79 Jules Prudhommeaux, ‘L’enseignement et les livres scolaires d’après-guerre en Allemagne’, in Enquête sur les livres scolaires,155–6.
80 Ibid.,165.
81 Bookbinder, Weimar Germany, 157.
82 Enquête sur les livres scolaires,165.
83 Ibid.,165–6.
84 Ibid.,170.
85 Ibid.,172.
86 Ibid.,174–5.
87 Ibid.,184.
88 Edouard Duméril, ‘Les livres scolaires allemandes d’après-guerre’, in Enquête sur les livres scolaires d’après-guerre, 277.
89 Prudhommeaux, Enquête sur les livres scolaires, 23.
90 Karl Brockhausen, ‘Les Livres scolaires d’après-guerre en Autriche’, in Prudhommeaux, ed., Enquête sur les livres scolaires, 307–8.
91 Jules Prudhommeaux, ed., Enquête sur les livres scolaires d’après-guerre, 2 (Paris: Conciliation Internationale, 1927).
92 Barnadotte E. Schmitt, ‘“War Guilt” in France and Germany’, American Historical Review 43, no. 2 (January 1938): 321.
93 Ibid., 321–41.
94 Jarausch and Lindenberger, ‘Contours of a Critical History of Contemporary Europe’, 5.