The Crusader Lordship of Transjordan (1100–1189): settlement forms, dynamics and significance

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a study of the 12th-century Crusader Lordship of Transjordan and discusses the traditional view that the principal role of this region was that of frontier of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The possibility of applying the concept of frontier to Transjordan is discussed in the context of a debate on the relationship between frontiers and castles, and of the conclusions obtained from the analysis of settlement patterns of this case study. On the basis of the documentary and archaeological data reviewed here, it is argued that the lordship had several roles, including military, political, economic and social, that were of crucial importance for the entire kingdom, to which it was tightly connected. Simply seeing the lordship and its castles as defining a frontier is not only incorrect, but also fails to reflect this region’s complexity and identity. Additionally, it is demonstrated that the common understanding that Transjordan was an isolated and peripheral region needs to be modified; instead, the elements of continuity with the rest of the kingdom were numerous and significant, to the point that several important socio-economic, military and strategic aspects of the kingdom depended largely on the existence of the Lordship of Transjordan. ¹

1 The present study is based on a PhD thesis defended at Cardiff University, School of History, Archaeology and Religion, under the supervision of Prof. Denys Pringle, with the title: 'Settlement in Crusader Transjordan (1100–1189). A Historical and Archaeological Study' and published open access by Cardiff University (Sinibaldi 2014). The thesis presents a comprehensive overview of the available historical and archaeological sources on Crusader-period Transjordan; its publication is currently in progress for Archaeopress.

Key Words:

• Crusader Lordship of Transjordan
• frontier
• archaeology and history of Jordan
• Crusader castles
• settlement patterns in the Crusader period

Acknowledgements

I am deeply grateful to the scholars and to the editor of Levant who have contributed, with their useful comments, to improve earlier versions of this paper: Peter Edbury, Benjamin Kedar, Denys Pringle and Jimmy Schryver, in addition to an anonymous reviewer. I am also grateful to the EAMENA project for granting permission to reuse photographs from their archives, and to the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, for facilitating surveys at the sites mentioned in the article.

Notes

1 The present study is based on a PhD thesis defended at Cardiff University, School of History, Archaeology and Religion, under the supervision of Prof. Denys Pringle, with the title: 'Settlement in Crusader Transjordan (1100–1189). A Historical and Archaeological Study' and published open access by Cardiff University (Sinibaldi 2014). The thesis presents a comprehensive overview of the available historical and archaeological sources on Crusader-period Transjordan; its publication is currently in progress for Archaeopress.

2 Book 49, p. 216. ‘Cum igitur civitates memoratas pluresque alias, maxime mediterraneas, nostri subiugare non possent, in extremitatibus terre sue, ut fines suos defenderent, castra munitissima et inexpugnabilia inter ipsos et hostes extruxerunt, scilicet: Montem Regalem et Petra deserti, cuius nomen modernum est Crac ultra Iordanem, Saphet et Belvoir cum multis aliis munitionibus citra Iordanem’.

3 H. E. Mayer also suggested the possibility that the date might have been 1167 AD (Mayer 1990: 221, 281–83).

4 It has long been thought that the source of this information was originally Jacques de Vitry. However, it has been recently understood that the original source is actually Oliver of Paderborn (Oliver of Paderborn, Historia Damiatina, ch. 31, ed. Hoogeweg 1894: 222–24), who makes the same arguments on another occasion; therefore, this information relates to the year 1219 AD. At this time, because the castles of Karak and Shawbak were held by the Muslims, this list might be misleading in terms of identifying fortresses originally held by the Franks, i.e., they might not have been the same fortresses. This should be taken into account regarding the observations reported here by Deschamps and Pringle before this update, when it was thought that the source was Jacques of Vitry. I thank prof. Denys Pringle for sharing this information.

5 Observations made during the building techniques surveys conducted by this author at the two Petra Crusader castles of Habis and al-Wuʿayra and at Shawbak Castle.

6 The study of the ceramics from excavations at Wadi Farasa in the Petra valley, conducted by this author, has reconstructed a long sequence of occupation at the site.

7 This has been interpreted as a possible draft of a map by Sanudo and Vesconti.

8 Pegolotti 1936: 296 (Polvere di zucchero del Cracco (del raccho); 363: Polvere di zucchero sono di molte maniere, cioè di Cipro e di Rodi e di Soria e del Cranco di Monreale e d’Alessandria (i.e., not traded in pani di zucchero, because not sufficiently cooked and the pani fall apart); 365: Appresso quella di Soria si è quella del Cranco, ma è bruna ed è panosa, cioè che à pezzi di pane di zucchero convenevolmente. (Better than Alexandria, but not as good as Cyprus, Rhodes or Syria).

9 Work in progress on the ceramics at the site, resulting from excavations led by Konstantino Politis, has identified types potentially covering a chronology of the 12th century AD (information kindly provided by Edna Stern).

10 Personal observations by this author from a study of the stratigraphic material from this assemblage.

11 The subject is currently being developed in separate publications, based on the observations in Sinibaldi (2014).

12 Such conclusions are the result of a study by this author and currently being prepared for publication, based on Sinibaldi 2014.

13 The location is under discussion, although one has been suggested by Mayer (1990: 27).

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council [grant number AH/I50401X/1]. Additional grants supporting this research were received by the American Center of Oriental Research; the Council for British Research in the Levant; the Palestine Exploration Fund; Cardiff University; the Medieval Settlement Research Group; the Economic History Society; and the Medieval Pottery Research Group.