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Abstract
SUMMARY: Bois de Boulogne was a key urban design effort of Second Empire France. This essay surveys the landscape of the park with particular attention to water; social practices that engendered the use of water, and social practices which water enabled. The hydrology of the site — the grand lake, streams and waterfalls — is a statement and demonstration of imperial mastery and sensibility. Nearly half of the project budget was devoted to hydraulics and, in the opening years, more than 15% of the municipal water supply was diverted to the park; all of which supported a status-laden array of features attractive to elites of the Second Empire and Third Republic.
RÉSUMÉ
Hydrologie et vision impériale du Bois de Boulogne
Le Bois de Boulogne était un effort de conception urbanistique-clé de la France du Second Empire. Cet article dresse le relevé du paysage du parc, avec une attention particulière portée à l’eau; aux pratiques sociales qui ont initié l’utilisation de l’eau et à celles que l’eau a rendu possible. L’hydrologie du site — le grand lac, les ruisseaux, les chutes d’eau — est une affirmation et une démonstration de maîtrise et sensibilité impériales. Près de la moitié du budget du projet était dévoué à l’hydraulique et, dans les années d’ouverture, plus de 15% de l’approvisionnement en eau était dévié vers le parc; tout cela supportait un éventail de signes distinctifs chargés de statut qui attiraient l’élite du Second Empire et de la Troisième République.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Wasserwissenschaft und die imperiale Vision des Bois de Boulogne
Der Bois de Boulogne war ein Schlüsseldesign städtischer Bemühungen des 2. Kaiserreiches in Frankreich. Diese Studie überprüft die Landschaft des Parks mit besonderer Beachtung des Wassers; soziale Praktiken, die der Gebrauch des Wassers erzeugte, und soziale Praktiken, die durch Wasser möglich wurden. Die Wasserwissenschaft des Ortes — der große See, Bäche und Wasserfall — ist eine Aussage und Verkündung der imperialen Macht und Sensibilität. Beinahe die Hälfte des Finanzplans des Projekts wurde für Hydraulik angewendet, und mehr als 15% wurden in den Anfangsjahren von der städtischen Wasserversorgung in den Park abgeführt, und alles unterstützte die status-beladene große Anzahl von Merkmalen, die die Eliten des Zweiten Kaiserreichs und der Dritten Republik interessierten.
RIASSUNTO
L’idrologia e l’ideologia imperiale nel Bois de Boulogne
Il Bois de Boulogne rappresenta uno sforzo chiave della progettazione urbanistica nella Francia del Secondo Impero. Questo saggio passa in rassegna il paesaggio del parco, con particolare attenzione al ruolo dell’acqua, dalle pratiche sociali che hanno portato al suo impiego, a quello che l’acqua ha reso possibili. L’idrologia del sito — il grande lago, i ruscelli, e le cascate — rappresentano e affermano l’autorità imperiale e la sensibilità del sovrano. Circa metà della somma impiegata per realizzare il progetto fu destinata alle spese idrauliche; negli anni successivi, oltre il 15% della fornitura di acqua municipale fu destinata al parco. L’intero apparato era di supporto a uno status di prestigio con caratteristiche che rappresentavano un’attrattiva per le élites del Secondo Impero e della Terza Repubblica.
RESUMEN
La hidrología y la visión imperial del Bois de Boulogne
Bois de Boulogne fue un diseño urbano clave del Segundo Imperio francés. Este artículo examina el paisaje de su parque con especial atención sobre el agua, las prácticas sociales que engendraron el uso del agua, y las prácticas sociales que fueron facilitadas a su vez por el agua. La hidrología del lugar (el gran lago, arroyos y cascadas) es una declaración y demostración de maestría y sensibilidad imperial. Casi la mitad del presupuesto del proyecto se dedicó a la hidráulica y, en los primeros años, más del 15% del suministro de agua municipal fue desviado al parque. Todo ello sirvió de base para una serie de elementos que resultaron muy atrayentes para las élites del Segundo Imperio y de la Tercera República.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My thanks to John Agnew for generously sharing his research regarding the 1861 International Exhibition at South Kensington. I am also indebted to the anonymous reviewers, whose insightful comments enabled me to improve this essay.
Notes
1 Souvenirs de L’Hotel de Ville de Paris, 1848–1852, cited in Pinkney Citation1955, 125–34.
2 Ingold Citation1993, 162.
3 Bourdieu Citation2006, 78–87.
4 Harvey Citation1990, 16.
5 Bender Citation2001, 2–3.
6 Giovannini Citation2014, C1.
7 Goldberger Citation2014. Frank Gehry refers only to the children’s zoo in his site description, although Goldberger reiterated a sea-faring reference by Gehry, comparing the building with the white whale in Moby Dick.
8 Le Grix de la Salle Citation2011.
9 Alphand Citation1868, 101.
10 Rydell, Citation1984, 55–6; see also Rydell Citation1993, 68–72.
11 Alphand Citation1868, 125–42.
12 Alphand Citation1868, 129–30.
13 Anon. 2015.
14 Site boundary coordinates: 48.848794N, 2.227542E (SW); 48.847994N, 2.257744E (SE); 48.876152N, 2.246468E (NW); 48.877549N 2.28344E (NE).
15 Alphand et al. 1886, 265.
16 Komara Citation2003, 1249; Citation2004, 5.
17 Haussmann Citation1890, 504.
18 Haussmann Citation1893, 121–32. Alphand studied at the École Polytechnic in Paris and the École des Ponts et Chaussées. All infrastructure service directors under Haussmann received the title ‘engineer-in-chief’; Alphand’s Service des Promenades orchestrated all architecture and horticulture in the parks. See also Komara Citation2009, 22–39; Anon. 1892, 390–2.
19 Tarlow Citation2007; Summerson Citation1949.
20 Joanne Citation1856, 14: ‘A partir de deux heures, il commence à s’animer; entre quatre et cinq heures il est dans tout son eclat’.
21 Alphand et al. 1886, 265.
22 Pinkney Citation1958, 52; Hopkins Citation2003.
23 Evans & Crane 1905, 36; Chadwick Citation1966, 155.
24 Haussmann Citation1890, 121–32; Chadwick Citation1966, 155–6; Chapman & Chapman 1957, 86–8; Burnell Citation1865, 240–9.
25 Chadwick Citation1966, 152–6; Hawley Citation1935, 983–5. Hawley credits Belgrand with inventing the term ‘hydrology’.
26 Alphand Citation1868, 3. Translations by author.
27 Alphand Citation1868, 4.
28 Alphand Citation1868, 3.
29 I’Anson 1859, 157–60.
30 Alphand Citation1868, 15.
31 Alphand Citation1868, 10–11, 15–26. Plate 2 of the appendix delineates this network in red ink.
32 Alphand Citation1868, 16.
33 Alphand Citation1868, 5.
34 Burnell Citation1862, 107, and Cox Citation1895, 10, place the well cost at approximately 1,000,000 francs (£40,000).
35 Alphand Citation1868, 114–24; Anon. 1862b, 292.
36 Alphand Citation1868, 123–4.
37 Burnell Citation1862, 77–9; Anon. 1872, 86–93.
38 Anon. 1862a, 189; Anon. 1862b, 292.
39 Alphand et al. 1886, 338–40.
40 Belgrand Citation1866, 3–5; Alphand Citation1868, 5; Anon. 1855, 556–7. In addition to the 8000m3 drawn from Passy, 18,000m3 was drawn from l’Ourcq, and additional water pumped from Chaillot and diverted to Bois de Boulogne; at least 15,000m3 was raised at Saint-Maur along l’Ourcq for Bois de Vincennes.
41 Olmsted 1983a, 234–6; 1983b.
42 Les Plaisirs de Paris: guide pratique et illustré, cited in Hopkins Citation2003, 201.
43 Cited in Pinkney Citation1958, 99.
44 Hopkins Citation2003, 202.
45 Alphand Citation1868, 87.
46 Chadwick Citation1966, 155.
47 Alphand Citation1868, 28.
48 e.g. Anon. 1908, 1–2 reports a skating accident involving 30 persons on Lac Inférieur, resulting in at least two deaths.
49 Mairie de Paris Citation2012, 5.
50 Alphand Citation1868, 6. The construction budget excludes costs for acquiring land; the complete project budget was greater than ₣14,352,000. Using an equivalency of ₣2:USD1, the complete cost was considerably less than that of New York’s Central Park, cf. Coffee Citation2012, 76.
51 Alphand Citation1868, 6, 8, 26, 36, 118, 120.
52 Warner Citation1884, 11.
53 Turcot Citation2015, 67–99; Bravard Citation2011, 85–99; Shaya Citation2004, 41–77.
54 Homans Citation1870, 402–44; Vandam Citation1895, 352–61; Marx Citation1963.
55 Harvey Citation2003, 141–52; Kinney Citation1987, 267–70; Edholm Citation1993, 139–65.
56 Alphand Citation1868, 157–8.
57 Forney Citation1867, 184–5.
58 Les Confessions IV, cited in Pinkney Citation1955, 125–34.
59 e.g. Bezucha Citation1983, 469–84; Kindleberger Citation1961, 289–305; Kulstein Citation1962, 356–75; Homans Citation1870, 402–44; CitationPiketty et al. 2006, 236–56; Price Citation1984, 417–34. Essential factors of the coup were internal socio-political stability amid transnational economic crises, and competition among European powers for markets and resources in Europe, the Americas and Africa.
60 Homans Citation1870; Vandam Citation1895; Marx Citation1963.
61 Potofsky Citation2004, 9–48.
62 Paris, cited in Pinkney Citation1955, 125–34.
63 Abercrombie Citation1912, 309–20.
64 Harris Citation1985, 127–38; Tann Citation2015, 94–114; Agnew Citation2015, 1–30. See also Cain & Hopkins 1980, 463–90; 1986, 501–25; CitationCrouzet Citation1964, 567–88; Cullen Citation1993, 635–57.
65 Mansel Citation2003, 93, 144, 155.
66 Delaporte Citation1986; Morris Citation1976.
67 Strang Citation1859, 232–49.
68 Plessis Citation1985; Pinkney Citation1958; Chapman Citation1953, 177–92. Chapman describes ‘military problems’ in ‘the most dangerous parts of the city’ resolved by creating straight and wide highways across Paris.
69 Jordan Citation1995, 273.
70 Alphand Citation1868, i–xii.
71 Homans Citation1870, 418.
72 cf. Olmsted 1861 [1983], 234–5, 309. New York city government repeatedly cited Bois de Boulogne as an important model for their planned Central Park, and attempted to recruit Alphand to direct its construction.