Fertility, families and ethnic conflict: Macedonians and Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia, 1944–2002*

Research for this article was funded by the Austrian Ministry of Education and Science and the Austrian Science Fund (FWF, project grant P14833). My gratitude goes to Robert Pichler (Graz) and the members of the research colloquium at the Institute of East European Studies (Berlin) for their useful comments on earlier versions of this paper.

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Notes

Research for this article was funded by the Austrian Ministry of Education and Science and the Austrian Science Fund (FWF, project grant P14833). My gratitude goes to Robert Pichler (Graz) and the members of the research colloquium at the Institute of East European Studies (Berlin) for their useful comments on earlier versions of this paper.

Ulf Brunnbauer, “Historischer Kompromiß oder Bürgerkrieg? Makedonien sucht Antworten auf den albanischen Extremismus,” Südosteuropa, Vol. 50, No. 4–6, 2001, pp. 159–189.

For analyses of the “Ohrid Agreement” see Jenny Engström, “Multi‐ethnicity or Bi‐nationalism? The Framework Agreement and the Future of the Macedonian State,” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe, No. 1, 2002. Special focus: The Ohrid Agreement and After: Forging a Political Settlement in Macedonia, ⟨http://www.ecmi.de/jemie/download/Focus1‐2002Engstrom.pdf⟩ ; Ulf Brunnbauer, “The Implementation of the Ohrid Agreement: Ethnic Macedonian Resentments,” Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe, No. 1, 2002. Special focus: The Ohrid Agreement and After: Forging a Political Settlement in Macedonia, ⟨http://www.ecmi.de/jemie/download/Focus1‐2002Brunnbauer.pdf⟩.

In this paper, the term “Macedonian(s)” with respect to people means ethnic Macedonians, and does not mean “citizens of the Republic of Macedonia.” In cases in which the difference between the ethnic and the civic–political notion of “Macedonian(s)” is unclear, I will use the clarification “ethnic Macedonian(s).”

Ljubomir Frčkoski, Modelot na megjuetničkite odnosi vo Makedonija – Model of the multiethnical relations in Macedonia (Skopje: Krug, 1998); Vladimir T. Ortakovski, “Interethnic Relations and Minorities in the Republic of Macedonia,” Southeast European Politics, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2001, pp. 24–45.

Arben Xhaferi, “Makedonien zwischen Ethnozentrismus und Multiethnie,” in Walter Kolbow and Heinrich Quaden, eds., Krieg und Frieden auf dem Balkan – Makedonien am Scheideweg? (Baden‐Baden: Nomos, 2001): pp. 36–43.

Wolf Oschlies, Makedonien: “Oase des Friedens” oder Kriegsschauplatz? (Berlin: SWP, 2001), ⟨http://www.swp‐berlin.org/produkte/brennpunkte/make401.htm⟩.

James Pettifer, “The Albanians in western Macedonia after FYROM independence,” in James Pettifer, ed., The New Macedonian Question (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1999): pp. 137–148. See Hugh Poulton, Who are the Macedonians? (London: Hurst, second revised edition, 2000): pp. 182–191.

Christian Voss, “Der albanisch‐makedonische Konflikt in der Republik Makedonien in zeitgeschichtlicher Perspektive,” Südosteuropa‐mittelungen, Vol. 41 No. 3, 2001, pp.271–281.

Heinz Willemsen and Stefan Troebst, “Transformationskurs gehalten. Zehn Jahre Republik Makedonien,” Osteuropa, Vol. 51, No. 3, 2001, p. 312.

Keith S. Brown, “In the Realm of the Double‐Headed Eagle: Parapolitics in Macedonia 1994–1999,” in Jane K. Cowan, ed., Macedonia. The Politics of Identity and Difference (London and Sterling, VA: Pluto Press, 2000): p. 135; see Duncan Perry, “Crisis in the Making? Macedonia and its Neighbors,” Südosteuropa, Vol. 43, No. 1–2, 1994, p. 56.

Robert W. Mickey and Adam S. Albion, “Success in the Balkans? A Case Study of Ethnic Relations in the Republic of Macedonia,” in I. M. Cuthbertson and J. Leibowitz, eds., Minorities: The New Europe's Old Issue (Prague and New York: Institute for EastWest Studies, 1993): pp. 66–69; Heinz Willemsen, “Machtwechsel in der EJR Makedonien,” Südosteuropa, Vol. 48, No. 1–2, 1999, p. 27.

See International Crisis Group, “Macedonia's Public Secret: How Corruption Drags the Country down,” ICG Balkans Report, No. 133, August 2002.

Farimah Daftary, ed., NGO Roundtable on ‘Inter‐ethnic relations in the FYR of Macedonia’. First Meeting (unpublished report, Flensburg: European Centre for Minority Issues, 2001); Ethnobarometer, Crisis in Macedonia. Progress Report (Rome: Ethnobarometer, 2001), ⟨http://www.ethnobarometer.org/crisisinmacedonia.pdf⟩, December 2001, p. 9; Antonina Zhelyazkova, “Macedonia A Year after the Ethnic Conflict. The Disintegration of Social Fabric,” in ibid., Albanian Prospects. Fieldwork (Sofia: IMIR, 2003): pp. 120–150; European Stability Initiative (ESI): Ahmeti's Village. The Political Economy of Interethnic Relations in Macedonia (Skopje and Berlin: ESI, 2002): p. 2.

On the census see John Shea, Macedonia and Greece. The Struggle to Define a New Balkan Nation (Jefferson, NC, London: McFarland, 1997): pp. 237–239.

See International Crisis Group, “Macedonia's Ethnic Albanians: Bridging the Gulf,” ICG Balkans Report, No. 98, August 2000, p. 5.

Sources: Jakim Sinadinovski, “Osnovne strukturalne promene stanovništva SR Makedonije u posleratnom periodu razvitka,” Cvijićevog zbornika, 1968, p. 265; Blaga Petroska, “Nekoi sogleduvanja vo vrska so natalitetot vo SR Makedonija,” in Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ed., Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: MANU, 1985): p. 179; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 101; Državen zavod za statistika, Popis 2002 – Census 2002 (Skopje: Državen zavod za statistika, 2003): p. 19.

Gligor Todorovski, “Demografskite procesi vo Makedonija predizvikani od iseluvanje na Turci vo pedesettite godini – Pričinite i početokot na iseluvanje,” Glasnik na Institutot za nacionalna istorija, Vol. 41, No. 1–2, 1997, p. 74.

Državen zavod za statistika, Popis 2002 – Census 2002, pp. 23–25; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 102.

Dušan Bubevski, “Nekoi aspekti na migracioniot bilans na Makedonija so drugite republiki i pokraini vo Jugoslavija,” Glasnik na Institutot za nacionalna istorija, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1990, pp. 172–173.

Jens Reuter, “Die albanische Minderheit in Mazedonien. Der separatistische Kosovo‐Bazillus breitet sich aus,” Südosteuropa, Vol. 36, No. 10, 1987, p. 591.

Slavko Milosavlevski and Mirče Tomovski, Albancite vo republika Makedonija 1945–1995. Legislativa, politička dokumentacija, statistika (Skopje: Studentski zbor, 1997): p. 307.

Sources: Christopher J. Grossmith, Marginality and Reproductive Behavior among the Albanian Minority in Yugoslav Macedonia (Chapell Hill, NC: Diss., Univ. of North Carolina, 1977): p. 69; Statistički pregled, No. 9, 1970, pp. 19–21; Statistički pregled, No. 22, 1972, p. 8; Statistički pregled, No. 117, 1981, p. 9; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 115; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik na Republika Makedonija 2002 (Skopje: Državen zavod za statistika, 2002): p. 65.

Amalija Jovanovikj, “Socialnite aspekti na planiranjeto na semejstvoto vo SR Makedonija,” in Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ed., Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: MANU, 1985): p. 139.

Dragan Avramov, “Aktuelni demografsko‐populacioni problemi u SFRJ,” in IX. Jugoslovenski simpozium za aktuelni problemi vo fertilitetot i sterilitet. Zbornik na trudovi (Struga, 1988): p. 13.

Republički zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik na NR Makedonija 1954 (Skopje: Republički zavod za statistika, 1954): p. 73.

Sources: Petroska, “Nekoi sogleduvanja,” p. 179; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, pp. 100–101, 115.

Ilija Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo. Makedonsko, albansko i tursko naselenie na selo vo Polog. Sociološka studija (Skopje: Institut za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, 1974): p. 30.

Statistički pregled, No. 5, 1969, p. 10.

Statistički pregled, No. 22, 1972, p. 11; Statistički pregled, No. 29, 1972, pp. 20–23; Chris J. Grossmith, Modernization and Natality in Moslem Macedonia (Chapel Hill, NC: M.A. thesis, University of North Carolina, 1971): p. 42.

Ilija Josifovski and Petar Markovikj, Demografskiot razvoj i proizvodstveno ekonomskite karakteristiki na individualnite zemjodelski stopanstva na selo vo Polog (Skopje: Institut za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, 1973): p. 18.

Statistički pregled, No. 142, 1984, p. 9.

Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 54–55.

For data on the correlation of number of desired children and education level, see Jovanovikj, “Socialnite aspekti,” pp. 134.

A. Lazarov and K. Demerdžiev, “Reproduktivnoto odnesuvanje na ženite,” in Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ed., Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: MANU, 1985): p. 215.

Amalija Jovanovikj, “Demografskite dviženja vo Republika Makedonija – Diferencijalnata rodnost na ženite,” Godišnik na Institutot za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, Vol. 14–15, No. 1, 1991–1992, pp. 205–206.

Nikolaj Botev, “Features of the Fertility Decline in the Balkan Countries since the End of XIX Century,” Etudes Balkaniques, No. 4, 1988, p. 87.

Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, pp. 104, 119.

Lj. Antonovski, D. Breznik and V. Malinska, “Abortusot kako medicinski problem,” in Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ed., Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: MANU, 1985): p. 230.

Petroska, “Nekoi sogleduvanja,” p. 179.

Petroska, “Nekoi sogleduvanja,” p. 171.

Republički zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 1954, p. 73.

Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 52–53.

Brown, “In the Realm of the Double‐Headed Eagle,” p. 125.

Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 43.

Source: Kommunist, 24 July 1987; quoted in: Reuter, “Die albanische Minderheit in Mazedonien,” p. 590.

On the concern of the ruling League of Communists in Macedonia see the documents in Milosavlevski and Tomovski, Albancite vo republika Makedonija, pp. 150–279. For repressive measures see Poulton, Who are the Macedonians?, pp. 127–132.

Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ed., Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: MANU, 1985).

Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Problemi na demografskiot razvoj, p. 79.

J. Jurukovski and R. Boškovski, “Planiranje na semejstvoto vo SR Makedonija – segašni sostojbi i perspektivi,” in IX. Jugoslovenski simpozium za aktuelni problemi vo fertilitetot i sterilitet. Zbornik na trudovi (Struga, 1988), p. 26; Reuter, “Die albanische Minderheit in Mazedonien,” p. 591.

Jurukovski and Boškovski, “Planiranje na semejstvoto vo SR Makedonija,” p. 26.

Jurukovski and Boškovski, “Planiranje na semejstvoto vo SR Makedonija,” p. 28; see Jovanovikj, “Socialnite aspekti na planiranjeto na semejstvoto,” pp. 123–141; Musafer Tufai, “Korenitata transformacija na sistemot od vrednosti – regulator na demografskiot razvoj,” in Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ed., Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: MANU, 1985): pp. 261–268.

Naum Matilov, “Socio‐ekonomskite karakteristiki na semejstvoto vo Makedonija,” Godišnik na Institutot za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1990: p. 240; see Poulton, Who are the Macedonians?, p. 128.

In 1981, sixty‐eight abortions were registered for every 100 live‐births (Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija, p. 231).

See Violeta Ačkoska, “Idejata za ‘golema Albanija’ i albanizacijata na zapadniot del na Republika Makedonija,” Vest, 7–18 May 2001 (in 10 parts).

Jovan Trifunoski, “Etnografske i antropogeografske odlike stanovništva ovčepoljske kotline,” in Branimir Gušič, ed., Zbornik za narodni život i običaje južnih slavena, vol. 40 (Zagreb: Jugoslovenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnosti, 1962): pp. 467–476; Jovan Trifunoski, “Kućna zadruga u selima SR Makedonije,” Etnološki pregled, No. 11, 1973, pp. 109–117; Todor Gruev, “O kućnim zadrugama u titovveleškom kraju,” Etnološki pregled, No. 11, 1973, pp. 119–128; George Ford, “Semejnata zadruga vo SR Makedonija,” Istorija, No. 2, 1984, pp. 351–363; Karl Kaser, Familie und Verwandtschaft auf dem Balkan. Analyse einer untergehenden Kultur (Vienna, Cologne and Weimar: Böhlau, 1995): pp. 278–279.

Vera Erlich, Family in Transition. A Study of 300 Yugoslav Villages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996): p. 38.

Erlich, Family in Transition, p. 39.

Erlich, Family in Transition, p. 68–74.

Erlich, Family in Transition, p. 46.

Philip Mosely, “The Distribution of the Zadruga within Southeastern Europe,” in Robert F. Byrnes, ed., Communal Families in the Balkans (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976): pp. 63–64.

Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Problemi na demografskiot razvoj, p. 415.

L. Sokolov, Promene u strukturi stanovništva na teritoriji NR Makedonije 1921–1953 godine kao odraz ekonomskog razvoja (Skopje: Ekonomski institut na NRM, 1962): p. 40.

Statistički pregled, No. 66, 1976, pp. 86–88.

Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Problemi na demografskiot razvoj, p. 415.

Statistički pregled, No. 29, 1972, p. 27.

Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Problemi na demografskiot razvoj, p. 470.

Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 98.

Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 89. “Extended households” consist of a simple family with other non‐married kin, “multiple households” include at least two married couples.

Petroska, “Oblici na semejstvoto vo Polog,” p. 85.

Sources: Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 86; Petroska, “Oblici na semejstvoto vo Polog,” p. 83.

Statistički pregled, No. 66, 1976, pp. 86–88.

Grossmith, Marginality and Reproductive Behavior, p. 101; see Christopher J. Grossmith, “The Cultural Ecology of Albanian Extended Family Households in Yugoslav Macedonia,” in Robert F. Byrnes, ed., Communal Families in the Balkans (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1976): p. 234.

Kaser, Familie und Verwandtschaft, p. 281.

Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 89.

Trifunoski, “Kućna zadruga,” pp. 114–115.

See Kaser, Familie und Verwandschaft, p. 280; Grossmith, “Cultural Ecology”; Grossmith, Marginality and Reproductive Behavior, pp. 114–117; Petroska, “Oblici na semejstvoto vo Polog,” pp. 86, 106–121.

For patrilineal kinship organizations in the Balkans, see Kaser, Familie und Verwandtschaft, pp. 178–256.

Petroska, “Oblici na semejstvoto vo Polog,” pp. 106–109.

This pattern still exists: in 1999, only 5,261 Albanian women were officially employed out of a total number of 49,131 employed Albanians, i.e. a female share of 10.7%. Among ethnic Macedonians, the share of women among the employed was 41.7% (Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 187). Literacy levels of Albanian women remained much lower than those of Albanian men or Macedonian women (see Table). In the Polog villages, for example, in 1972 20.5% of all Albanian women between 20 and 34 years old were illiterate, while the figure for Macedonian women of the same age was 4.56% (Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 70).

Source: Naum Matilov, “Semejniot avtoritet na sovremenoto semejstvo vo Makedonija,” Godišnik na Institutot za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, Vol. 24–27, No. 1, 1993–1994, p. 272.

Grossmith, “Cultural Ecology,” p. 242.

Petroska, “Oblici na semejstvoto vo Polog,” 119.

See Amalija Jovanovikj, “Opštestvenata položba i opštestvenata mobilnost na ženite vo Makedonija,” Godišen zbornik na filozofski fakultet na Univerzitetot ‘Sv. Kiril i Metodij’ – Skopje, Vol. 24, 1997, pp. 215–225, esp. 223. Women are still expected by Macedonian society to take care of the household and to raise the children. They are also grossly under‐represented in politics and other high‐level decision‐making bodies.

Matilov, “Semejniot avtoritet na sovremenoto semejstvo,” p. 273.

Cf. Olivera Burić, “Porodićna zadruga i savremena jugoslovenska porodica (Sociološki pregled na kontinuitet),” Sociologija sela, Vol. 11, No. 40–42, 1973, pp. 84–98; Ford, “Semejnata zadruga,” p. 361.

Sources: Ilija Josifovski, Nekoi aspekti na demografskiot razvitok na selskoto naselenie vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: Institut za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, 1970): p. 102; Violeta Ačkoska, Agrarno‐sopstveničkite odnosi, promeni i procesi vo Makedonija 1944–1953 (Skopje: Institut za nacionalna istorija, 1998): p. 314; Statistički pregled, No. 65, 1976, p. 7; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 106.

Mirijana Najčevska, “Manipulacija,” Utrenski vesnik, 8 May 2001, p. 11. ⟨http://www.macedonia.org/crisis/commitment.html⟩, 28 June 2001.

Official information by the Macedonian government at ⟨http://www.macedonia.org/crisis/commitment.html⟩, 28 June 2001.

ESI, Ahmeti's Village, p. 15; Zhelyazkova, “Macedonia A Year After the Ethnic Conflict,” p. 140. Zhelyazkova quotes statistical data from 1982 on the ethnic breakdown of employment in the administrations of the predominantly Albanian municipalities of Tetovo, Gostivar and Debar, where Albanians were grossly outnumbered by Macedonians.

Dančo Zografski, “Entstehung und Entwicklung der Industrie in Makedonien bis zum Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs,” Österreichische Osthefte, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1989, p. 538.

Lazar Lazarov, Opštestveno‐ekonomskiot razvoj na NR Makedonija vo periodot na obnovata i industrializacijata 1944–1957 (Skopje: Institut za nacionalna istorija, 1988): p. 58.

Lazarov, Opštestveno‐ekonomskiot razvoj, p. 189.

Source: Lazarov, Opštestveno‐ekonomskiot razvoj, p. 25; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 113.

Violeta Ačkoska, “Migracijata selo‐grad kako posledica na agrarnata politika 1945–1953 godina,” Glasnik na institutot za nacionalna istorija, Vol. 38, No. 1–2, 1994, p. 70; Ačkoska, Agrarno‐sopstveničkite odnosi, pp. 279, 282.

Ačkoska, Agrarno‐sopstveničkite odnosi, p. 282.

Petar Markovikj, Opštestveno‐ekonomskite promeni na selo vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: Institut za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, 1970): p. 96.

See Migracioni dviženja na selsko‐gradsko naselenie vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: Republički zavod za statistika, 1968): p. 10.

Demografski podatoci za selo‐grad vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: Republički zavod za statistika, 1966): p. XII.

Josifovski, Nekoi aspekti na demografskiot razvitok, p. 28.

Slave Risteski, Demografskite dviženja i procesi vo Republika Makedonija 1948–1994 (Skopje: Ekonomski fakultet, 1998): p. 29.

Risto Kartalov, “Posledici od migraciite i deagrarizacijata na selskoto naselenie vo SR Makedonija,” Socialna Politika, Vol. 7, No. 3–4, 1979, p. 41; see Markovikj, Opštestveno‐ekonomskite promeni na selo, p. 135.

Angel Georgiev, “Specifični karakteristiki na urbanizacijata vo NR Makedonija,” in Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, ed., Problemi na demografskiot razvoj vo SR Makedonija (Skopje: MANU, 1985): p. 403; Popis na naselenieto i stanovite vo 1971. Naselenie. Vitalni, etnički i migracioni obeležja (Belgrade: Sojuzen zavod za statistika, 1974): p. 92. Skopje's population also experienced a boost due to the re‐population after the devastating 1963 earthquake.

Ačkoska, “Migracijata selo‐grad,” p. 70.

Ačkoska, Agrarno‐sopstveničkite odnosi, p. 280.

Ačkoska, “Migracijata selo‐grad,” p. 70–71.

Statistički pregled, No. 65, 1976, pp. 18–19; see Josifovski, Nekoi aspekti na demografskiot razvitok, p. 96.

Ilija Josifovski and Petar Markovikj, Demografskiot razvoj i proizvodstveno ekonomskite karakteristiki na individualnite zemjodelski stopanstva na selo vo Polog (Skopje: Institut za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, 1973): p. 39. See Petar Markovikj and Risto Kartalov, Zadružniot trud i kooperativnite odnosi na selo vo Polog (Skopje: Institut za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, 1972): p. 50.

ESI, Ahmeti's Village, p. 16.

See Risto Kartalov, “Nekoi socialno‐ekonomski implikacii na transformacijata na agrarnata struktura na Makedonija,” Godišnik na institutot za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1977, pp. 16–17; Migracioni dviženja, p. 14.

Mickey and Smith Albion, “Ethnic Relations in the Republic of Macedonia,” p. 57; ESI, Ahmeti's Village, p. 5.

On Yugoslav Macedonian nation building see Stephen E. Palmer and Robert R. King, Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian Question (Hamden, Con.: Archon Books, 1971): pp. 133–203. The idea of “imagined communities” is taken from Benedict Anderson, Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (London et al.: Verso, extended edition, 1993).

Source: Republički zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 1954, p. 55. Practically all Albanian women older than thirty‐five were registered as illiterate.

Palmer and King, Yugoslav Communism and the Macedonian Question, p. 177.

For the latter, see Violeta Ačkoska, “Emancipacijata na muslimanskata žena,” Glasnik na Institutot za nacionalna istorija, Vol. 36, No. 1–2, 1992, pp. 17–28.

Especially during the 1940s and 1950s, when Albanians were perceived as dangerous elements by the security apparatus of Yugoslavia, headed until 1966 by the notorious Albanian basher Aleksandar Ranković.

Grossmith, “Cultural Ecology,” p. 243.

See Reuter, “Die albanische Minderheit in Mazedonien,” p. 595.

Source: Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 95.

See Zhelyazkova, “Macedonia: A Year after the Ethnic Conflict,” p. 141.

Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 108.

See Grossmith, Marginality and Reproductive Behavior, p. 135.

Petroska, “Oblici na smejstvoto vo Polog,” p. 82.

Jorde Jakimovski, “Socialno‐ekonomskata struktura na naselenieto i ekonomskata emigracija od SR Makedonija so poseben osvrt na Tetovo i Struga,” Godišnik na Institutot za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, Vol. 11–12, No. 1, 1990, p. 140.

Josifovski, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, p. 110.

See Grossmith, Marginality and Reproductive Behavior, p. 149.

Zhelyazkova, “Macedonia: A Year After the Ethnic Conflict,” p. 140.

ESI, Ahmeti's Village, p. 5.

Milosavlevski and Tomovski, Albancite vo republika Makedonija, p. 318.

ESI, Ahmeti's Village, p. 4.

ESI, Ahmeti's Village, p. 19.

Albanians constituted less than 10% of the party membership, and, during the socialist period, less than 10% of the members of parliament. See Milosavlevski and Tomovski, Albancite vo republika Makedonija, pp. 286, 329.

See Grossmith, Marginality and Reproductive Behavior, p. 19.

Statistički pregled, No. 117, 1981, pp. 36–37; Statistički pregled, No. 263, 1995, p. 42; Statistički pregled, No. 2.4.011, 2000, p. 35.

Source: Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Problemi na demografskiot razvoj, p. 275; Statistički pregled, No. 211, 1991, p. 41; Statistički pregled, No. 263, 1995, p. 28; Statistički pregled, No. 2.2.011, 2000, p. 89; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, p. 115.

See Grossmith, Marginality and Reproductive Behavior.

Milosavlevski and Tomovski, Albancite vo republika Makedonija, p. 339.

Mirjana Najčevska, Teuta Arifi and Nataša Gaber, Učestvoto na ženite vo sovremenite trendovi vo Republika Makedonija (Skopje: Fondacija ‘Fridrik Ebert’–Kancelarija Skopje, 1997): p. 34.

Milosavlevski and Tomovski, Albancite vo republika Makedonija, p. 347.

Source: Blagica Novkovska et al., Statistical data for background purposes of OECD review. Country: Republic of Macedonia (Ljubljana: Centre for educational policy studies, 2001), ⟨http://www.see‐educoop.net/education_in/pdf/oecd_report‐mak‐enl‐t01.pdf⟩, p. 11.

Sources: Republički zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 1954, p. 88; Statistički pregled, No. 5, 1969, p. 39; Statistički pregled, No. 66, 1976, p. 19; Statistički pregled, No. 142, 1984, p. 14; Statistički pregled, No. 211, 1991, p. 22; Statistički pregled, No. 263, 1995, p. 35; Statistički pregled, No. 2.4.011, 2000, p. 35; Državen zavod za statistika, Statistički godišnik 2000, pp. 99–100.

Shea, Macedonia and Greece, pp. 256–273.

See Reuter, “Die albanische Minderheit in Mazedonien,” p. 595.

Najčevska, Arifi and Gaber, Učestvoto na ženite, p. 34.

Josifovksi, Opštestvenite promeni na selo, pp. 154–159.

Mirjana Najčevska, “Srednoto obrazovanie kako faktor na megjuetničkata (ne)tolerancija,” in Mirjana Najčevska, Emilija Simoska and Nataša Gaber, Izvorite i faktorite na megjuetničkata (ne)tolerancija vo procesot na obrazovanieto (Skopje: Institut za sociološki i političko‐pravni istražuvanja, 2001): pp. 44–45.

Emilija Simoska, “Zwischenethnische und zwischenkonfessionelle Beziehungen,” trans. Ulf Brunnbauer, Ost‐West‐Gegeninformationen, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2001, pp. 10–15.

ESI, Ahmeti's Village, pp. 25–26.